Cello | Practicalities
Cello | Practicalities
Range
Professional and non-professional ranges of the cello, comparative ranges, and the qualities of the cello in various registers.
Range | Resources
The range of the cello, for professional orchestras, is C2 to E6. (Read, 1953)
The range of the cello, for non-professional orchestras, is C2 to C5. (Read, 1953)
The approximate upper limit for artificial harmonics on the cello (Forsyth, 1935, p. 424)
Range | Research
All Instrument, Orchestral Register
The range of the cello, by comparative orchestral register:
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Registral Considerations
Each of the strings has impact:
“A-string: the most penetrating string with the most brilliance; typical for solo passages. D-string: warm and gentle; very good for lyrical line. G-string: comparatively the weakest string, but still powerful. C-string: has true bass qualities; rich and sonorous” (Sevsay, 2005, p. 5)
Range | Repertoire
Examples from orchestration treatises examining qualities of the cello’s ranges in various excerpts from the repertoire. Organized by composer.
“Beethoven does not hesitate to take a Solo Cellist a fourth higher [than Haydn writing D5]. This is the phrase in his own step-ladder notation.”
“To the musical ear the “ D ” is probably the most beautiful string on the Cello. Its notes differ totally from the same notes when played on the Viola. The latter instrument has a certain hollow tragic sound on its C string, a sound that is easily capable of orchestral prominence. On the other hand, the Cello “D” is characterized by a sort of caressing reticence. In fact, it is not going too far to say that, of all the soft, silky sounds in the orchestra, it is the softest and silkiest. Forceful it cannot be called, but when unaccompanied, or only lightly accompanied, it is capable of expressing the most 'poetical feelings. For an example of its lovely tone-quality one need travel no further than Beethoven’s.”
“As a melodic instrument, the violoncello is one of the most important in the orchestra. There is a beautiful and expressive quality in its upper register that nothing else can replace. Its lower notes can also be very effectively employed for melodies of a sombre character, as, for instance, in the long solo for the celli, unaccompanied save by a pianissimo roll on the kettle-drum, at the commencement of the second act of ‘ Lohengrin.’ But it is more frequently used in the middle or upper part of the orchestra. We give some characteristic examples.”
Gevaert talks about the high range of the cello used by Haydn:
“Cette gamme atteint la limite aiguë assignée aux violoncelles dans la musique d'orchestre. Des sons aussi élevés apparaissent déjà chez Haydn.”
“The following example presents a cadenza, kindly offered for use in this work by an excellent European Violoncellist (H. Holzmann). With its aid an idea may be formed as to the manner of writing an effective solo-part for this instrument.” (see figure 1, figure 2 from )”
Strauss
“Passages written in these lofty [ex. 261] nipping altitudes are fairly common in the most modern- school of orchestration. On the other hand, it must not be overlooked that such passages, if they are really to come off when played by a dozen instrumentalists, must have a certain simplicity and suitability of outline. Cellists as a body are excellent technicians, but a passage which a single player can ease to his own requirements in the topmost register will probably sound doubtful under the rigorous conditions of a big unison-ensemble. For instance, it would need a very rare group of executants to perform satisfactorily Strauss’s solo-phrase which portrays the last struggle and aspirations of the dying Knight.”
Wagner
“The bottom (covered) strings of the Cello bear some analogy to those of the Viola, but their tone is more “straightforward” and less unex pected. In solo passages they have a certain mingled smoothness and austerity which fits them for the performance of very serious and deeply-felt passages. An excellent example covering the range of the three bottom strings is to be found in the familiar Cello passage with which the 3rd Act of Die Meistersinger opens. Another and even better instance may be quoted here from the 2nd Act of Lohengrin.” (see figure from )
Playing Techniques
This section quotes from orchestration treatises and links to sites containing information about cello basic and extended techniques.
Techniques | Resources
Techniques | Research
Cello’s techniques:
Bowing
This section explores how authors talk about bowing bowing on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“All the various kinds of bowing can be applied to the Cello. Very long slurs are impossible as the bow, heavier and less elastic than the Violin bow, has to be used more rapidly in order to keep the thick strings in vibration.”
“The Cello Bow is shorter, heavier, and less elastic than the Violin Bow. It can, however, perform with finish and distinction all the Violin coups d’archet. The greater constructional perfection of the Cello gives it an advantage over the Viola. All the bow-strokes, not merely the heavier bow-strokes, are quite congenial to its easy, free speaking nature.”
“More particularly in cases where an appreciable melodic crescendo is called for, the player is handicapped by long slurs. He is compelled either to alter the phrasing or to harden and tighten the tone. If the composer breaks up the phrases and remembers (1) that the point and the nut are respectively the weak and the strong parts of the bow, and (2) that therefore the V is the best crescendo stroke, he will secure an accurate ensemble in the phrasing and a better melodic effect. In a more general way it may be repeated that the careful adjustment of slur-lengths to tone required is an insurance against careless orchestral playing. In p and pp passages the judicious lengthening of the slurs makes a crescendo or an “ orchestral mezzo-forte ” a practical impossibility. Then, when a crescendo is required, the breaking up of the slurs gives the String-players a surprising ease and freedom of movement. Attention to small points of differences, such as this, meets its due reward at rehearsal.”
Gevaert talks about the high range of the cello used by Haydn:
“126. All that was said in the last chapter as to bowing. and phrasing, the tremolo, pizzicato, and sordini on the violin holds good also of the violoncello. The pizzicato is especially effective on the latter instrument, as the longer strings have more resonance when twitched with the finger than those of the violin. This greater length of string also renders the pizzicato on the higher notes more effective than is the case with the violin (§ 87).” (
“15.—All remarks made concerning Violin bowing apply equally in the case of the Cello; the different varieties, such as martelé, detaché, sautillé, staccato, are practicable on all stringed instruments alike. The same holds good of slurs. However, we must not omit to mention an effect peculiar to the Cello, due to the manner in which the instrument is held by the player, which is just the reverse of the way in which a violinist holds his fiddle. This special effect is obtained by using an up-bow when attacking a chord, in order to produce an impression of great energy; this practice is, of course exceptional, for the maximum degree of strength on stringed instruments is usually obtained with a down-bow.”
Harmonics
This section explores how authors talks about harmonics on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
A study exploring the natural string harmonics on the G string of the cello. Score and video examples showing the string divided in half, thirds, quarters, fifths, and sixths.
Audio and video examples of string harmonics.
"(1) Natural. Every string vibrates as a whole and in sections simultaneously. By lightly touching it at certain points the whole-length vibration is prevented, and it vibrates only in sections, and thus produces " harmonics.” On each string there are several harmonics obtainable ; they occur as a regular diminishing progression of intervals upwards from the open string— octave, perfect fifth, perfect fourth, major third, minor third. The lower ones in the series are the easier and the most commonly used. To indicate a harmonic a little “ o ” is written above the note, which in every case denotes the real sound, not the place where the string is touched."
(2) Artificial. Any note on the three highest Strings which is two octaves and a note above its lowest string can be produced as an “ artificial ” harmonic by stopping the note two octaves below and lightly touching the string with the fourth finger. In this case the real sound produced is not written, but, instead,the two notes which are stopped and touched : the stopped note is written in the usual way, and the touched note (always of course a perfect fourth higher) has a diamond-shaped head. As the whole hand has to move for each artificial harmonic slurs should be avoided and intervals kept small. These harmonics are easy on the Violin, difficult and risky on Viola, possible and good on Cello, and impossible on Bass. They should not be written higher than two octaves above the lowest one possible. The harmonic is a special effect and must be treated as such : the sound is thin and fluty, and can never be loud. Harmonics are always unsuitable when the music is fast, and in no case should a single one be introduced in the middle of a quick stopped passage. The bow must be used rapidly, so long slurs are bad, and a passage written entirely in harmonics should as a general rule consist only of the “ natural ” or only of the “ artificial ” kind, as an intermixture is difficult. The " natural ” harmonics are the easier and have the better tone. A little time for preparation is required for the correct production of all harmonics, as needless to say, unless perfectly in tune, they do not sound at all."
“The complete Harmonic compass of the Cello in both Natural and Artificial Harmonics is therefore [see figure]. Of these notes the first three can only be played in Natural Harmonics. The rest can all be played in Artificial Harmonics, and the notes which are marked thus + can be taken both ways. ”
“A very simple example of a chord for two Solo Cellos playing in Artificial Harmonics has already been quoted from Humperdinck's Hänsel und Gretel. The notation in the Full Score is of course not the one printed above, but this : [see figure] The upper of these two parts is another example of the license mentioned above. The sound two octaves above the open string is actually performed as a Natural Harmonic. The second Cello-part can only be played as an Artificial Harmonic.""
Notation
This section explores how authors talks about notation on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“All three clefs, bass, tenor and treble are used, and, now, the real sound is always written. In old scores when the treble clef is used, the notes are often written an octave above the real sound ; and because of this ambiguity it is wiser to avoid the treble clef altogether, unless the part gets very high.”
"The part for this instrument is written in the bass clef, though, to avoid leger lines in the higher register, the tenor or treble clef may be employed. The latter clef should indicate the true pitch of the notes required; formerly, it was the custom to write the part an octave higher when using the treble clef.""
Pizzicato
This section explores how authors talk about pizzicato pizzicato on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
"Single pizzicato notes are usually all played with the index finger of the right hand. Most orchestral string players have not developed a multi-finger pizzicato technique. If there is time to set the bow down, pizzicato playing can better controlled.""
Audio and video examples of string pizzicato.
“A special word must be said with regard to the Cello pizzicato for, besides its stereotyped usefulness as the ordinary bass of the String pizzicato, it possesses exactly the right mixture of suppleness and resonance for playing what may be called left-hand pianoforte arpeggios. Used thus, it gives a delightful piquancy and a sort of subordinate prominence to its part. It is happiest when contrasted in a quiet ensemble with the bowed upper Strings or with the Wood Wind. A Cello part of this sort generally lies, especially in the lighter forms of music, somewhere between the 3rd string and the note D one twelfth above. It usually includes a statement of the true bass at the beginning of each bar followed by an easy and not too rapid arpeggio on the two upper strings. These pizzicato parts never stray very far outside the bounds of a somewhat severe simplicity. Broken chords that lie well under the hand and short, easily-played scale passages are the most effective. In this medium even the simple alternation of tonic and dominant sounds charming. Here are the first four bars from the Opening Chorus of The Mikado (Act II.).”
““Sullivan’s touch in passages of this sort was of the lightest. Of all the accompaniments in his Comic Operas perhaps the most graceful is that to Phoebe’s song, Were I thy bride, in Act I. of The Yeomen ofthe Guard. It is simplicity itself, merely repeated chords on the muted Violins, a simple pizzicato quaver figure on the Cellos, helped on the second half of the bar by the divisi Violas, a pizzicato Bass-note every other bar and a four-part Wood-Wind chord to set things going. As a miniature it is exquisite. The student would do well to compare the sound of this as played on the pianoforte with the intended sound in the orchestra. He would also do better to consider, not only the notes which Sullivan has written, but the many other notes which he might have written but didn’t.”
“127. An interesting and instructive example of the pizzicato for the violoncello is the following : [see figure] The upper staff of this score is played both by the flute and piccolo. The student will learn later (§216) that the latter instrument sounds an octave higher than written. The ‘ Timpani ’ on the lowest staff are the kettle-drums (§ 37) ; these give the notes as written, while the double-basses sound them an octave lower. We see here the violoncelli pizzicato while the double-basses continue to play with the bow ; we must note also the successive employment of the three clefs (§ 120), the notes in the G clef being written at their real pitch. Observe, too, that the pizzicato is rendered more prominent by doubling the violoncello by the viola, and that as the passage ascends, and these instruments reach their higher register, where the tone is thinner, the second violin is added, to strengthen the middle part.”
The shorter the string the drier the tone; what is the upper limit for pizzicato play ing on the Cello? No definite answer can be given, as both performers and instruments vary somewhat; however, I think G#, A, Bb may be considered the highest notes which it is safe to write pizzicato. G# is still sonorous enough to leave behind it a vibration that recalls the bluish haze hovering over a distant landscape on a hot summer’s day. A is duller in tone, but when used as follows it is still satisfactory, thanks to the strengthening effect of the open string: [see figure] Bb a semitone higher is somewhat dry; in case of need it may be written, but should certainly not be exceeded.” ()
Ponticello
This section explores how authors talks about ponticello on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“(I) Sul ponticello, with the bow kept close to the bridge. It produces an unpleasant hard tone, and is usually confined to bowed tremolo. (2) Sul tasto (or sur la touche), the bow being drawn over the fingerboard; this produces a light, thin tone, only suitable for PP. (3) Col legno, when the player uses the stick instead of the hair of the bow. It is not drawn, but thrown on the string and allowed to rebound: the result is a success ion of hard wooden taps and considerable damage to the varnish of the bow: the effect can never be loud, and to be successful requires a large number of players; it is wiser therefore to give it to all the Strings at once. The contradiction for all three devices is " naturale. ”
“The tone of bowed instruments varies considerably according to the part of the string on which the bow is brought to bear. Whereas, close to the bridge the maximum brilliancy is obtained, above the finger-board the quality is weak and dull." When the bow is used near the bridge the timbre of the instrument is metallic and, so to speak, glittering: while incomparably powerful in an impressive ensemble, the tone-col or becomes sparkling and ethereal in pianissimo passages. A similar change in the timbre of the Harp may be observed when the strings are pluck ed close to. the sounding-board: it is near the bridge of the bowed instruments and near the sounding-board of the Harp that the strings can bear the greatest degree of tension. Hence this peculiar effect, this characteristic quality.”
Sordino
This section explores how authors talks about sordino on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“A mute is a small three-pronged piece of metal, wood, or ivory, which is placed on the bridge of the instrument without touch ing the strings. It deadens the sound some what and produces a thin reedy tone. The direction is “con sordino,” and the contradiction “senza sordino.” Time, at least three slow bars, must be allowed in which to put on and take off the mute.”
“So far, we have not, when treating of the stringed instruments, referred to the Mute, be cause it seemed needless to describe such a well known accessory. The Mute is employed to damp the strength of the vibrations of the strings of Violins, Violas, and Violoncellos, while it at the same time renders their timbre more penetrating. (It is better not to use it much in passages intended to be played on the 4th string of the Violin, because, in this case, it somewhat too effectually muffles the tone of the instrument.) The Mute is not employed on the Double-bass. When all the other stringed instruments are muted, the strength of the bass part may be suitably balanced by assigning it to one or two Double-basses only, the indication Solo or Due Soli being employed in that case. In this manner, the parts will be so well-balanced that no one will ever perceive that all the Strings are not muted. It would seem that the Mute was still in use in the time of Berlioz, who says: “Mutes are employed on the Double-bass, just as on the other bowed instruments, but the effect ob tained is not very characteristic; the Mute only somewhat diminishes the strength of the vi brations, rendering the quality darker and duller.” Tempora mutantur: nowadays the Mute is no longer employed by Double-bass players.”
Stops
This section explores how authors talks about stops on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“Chords and Arpeggios of two, three, or four notes are possible which have each note on a separate string and in the same position. Double-note chords on adjacent strings are the only ones that can be played solidly, as the bow can only play on two strings at the same time. Larger chords are “ spread,” that is, played in groups of two notes, which follow each other with great rapidity. Chords having one or two open strings for their lowest notes are easiest and have the greatest resonance.""
“Chords: Owing to the length of the strings and the consequent difficulty in stopping groups of notes with the fingers, the number of Cello-chords is a good deal smaller than those available on the Violin or Viola.” “Double-Stops: Needless to say all combinations of adjacent open strings are possible. Furthermore, it is unnecessary to detail all the double-stops in which one of the two strings is open. They follow the same general rules as were given under the heading “ Violin.”" Double-stops in which no note is open: The best general rule to give here is that all perfect fifths, minor and major sixths, diminished and minor sevenths, may be used provided the top note is not higher than [G5] (1) Avoid all major sevenths. Their stretch is too great. (2) Perfect fifths are more satisfactory, and may be used with less apprehension on the Cello than on the Violin and Viola.”
“124. Double notes and chords are less frequently written for the violoncello than for the smaller stringed instruments. If one or two of the notes are open strings, such chords will in general be easy. If there are no open strings, the best intervals to write are fifths, sixths, and minor (not major) sevenths, and, of combinations of three notes, only common chords containing intervals of a fifth and sixth. But by far the most effective and easiest chords are such as contain open strings"
“125. Such chords as those shown in our last example can also be effectively employed in arpeggio, as in the great duet in the second act of ‘ Euryanthe,’ of which we quote the first four bars"
Tremolo
This section explores how authors talk about tremolo tremolo on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“Bowed tremolo is easy and effective. Fingered and Broken tremolo must be written with regard to the limitations of the stretch of the left hand.”
“Both Bowed- and Fingered-Tremolos are in common use, and there is little to add to what has been already said on the subject.2 Bowed tremolos in the upper register are naturally not often allotted to the Cellos. In the middle-orchestral-register, even if the Violins are not at liberty to make the tremolo, it is generally better to secure the chord by a division of the Violas rather than by employing the Cellos for that purpose. Lower still, in the bottom- and lower-middle- register of the Cello, tremolos are often written for special purposes. In arranging Fingered-Tremolos for the Cellos it is important to notice that the utmost stretch possible between the 1st and 4th fingers on the same string is only a major third: with the 1st finger on one string and the 4th finger on the next higher string the maximum stretch for most players is a minor seventh. A point to be kept in mind with regard to the Cello tremolo is that it is something more of a “ fact,” something slightly more present to the consciousness than the tremolo of the upper stringed instruments. Everything that has been said already with regard to the ponti- cello, the sul tasto, the col legno applies as much to the Cello as to the Violin. The Mute is in regular use. It must, however, be confessed that one rarely hears a group of orchestral Cellos adequately muted. The little “ clip ” mutes scarcely veil the tone at all. In fact they rob the instrument of its romantic tone-colour, and do not substitute for it the proper mysterious muted quality. Then, again, light wooden mutes without sufficient substance are often chosen so that their loose clutch shall not harm the bridge. In either case the result is dis appointing. The lower strings are enfeebled without being much altered, while the tone-colour of the top-string changes, not from one kind of poetry to another, but from poetry to prose.”
Trills
This section explores how authors talk about trills on the cello. Organized by treatise and resource author.
“All shakes are possible, but it is best to avoid those on the thick C string.”
“As with the Violin and Viola, shakes, both whole-tone and half tone, may be employed through practically the whole of the playing compass. As the pitch descends, however, the slowness of the vibrations produces, on the Cello, a somewhat tubby effect. This applies in some degree to the bottom string of the Viola also. On the Cello it is as well to avoid, except for a particular effect, shakes on the C string.”
Qualities
How are the cello’s timbres described by authors of orchestration treatises? This section links to ACTOR’s treatise analysis work, where texts have been analyzed; you will find lists of descriptors and the quotes and textbooks they are from. Read More ->
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