Prout | The Orchestra, Volume 1

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AUGENER’S EDITION, No. 9189.

THE ORCHESTRA.

VOLUME I,

TECHNIQUE OF THE INSTRUMENTS.

BY

EBENEZER PROUT, B.A. (London).

Hon. Mus.Doc. Trin. Coll. Dublin and Edinburgh, and Professor of Music in the University of Dublin.

THIRD EDITION.

LONDON: AUGENER & CO.

[entered at stationers hall.]
Copyright for all Countries. Rights of Translation Reserved.

PREFACE.

At length, after two and a half years of arduous work, the author has the satisfaction of offering to students the first part of his promised treatise on the Orchestra. The delay in its appearance has been due, partly to increasing pressure of professional engagements, but far more to the laborious preliminary investigations necessary to enable him to do some measure of justice to his subject.

In order that he might have at hand, when required, suitable examples illustrating every point that it might be needful to refer to, the author, before writing a single line of the text, examined nearly every orchestral score in his library. He consulted many hundreds of scores by the great masters, varying in length from a few pages to six or seven hundred, or even more. He made a list of some fourteen hundred passages for quotation or reference—far more, of course, than it would be possible to make use of, because, without such a list at his side, he knew that he would probably waste hours in hunting for a particular illustration when he required it. The result has fully justified his method of procedure ; for the actual writing of the volume has occupied a comparatively short time. The preliminary work, on the other hand, required more than a year and a half to complete it.

In planning the present work, it appeared advisable to deal first with the instruments of the orchestra individually, leaving till later the important subject of their combination, though this is of necessity incidentally shown to some extent in the examples given. After two preliminary chapters, treating of the qualifications needful to the student, of the composition of the modern orchestra, and of the arrangement of the score, the various departments of the orchestra, strings, wind, and percussion, are' taken in turn, and the mechanism, character, and special features of each instrument explained in detail.

Without going deeply into scientific problems, it has been necessary to touch from time to time on questions of acoustics ; for otherwise it would have been impossible to explain many points connected with the technique of the instruments. No further knowledge of acoustics is required than the student can obtain from such a work as Mr. Sedley Taylor’s ‘ Sound and Music.

In dealing with the different instruments, the author has endeavoured above all to be practical—with what success readers must judge. Many of the hints here given to students have been furnished to the writer by orchestral players, and much is to be learned from these gentlemen by those who have the opportunity of associating with them.

It will be seen that no mention is made in this volume of such instruments as are peculiar to military bands. Only those are spoken of here which, with more or less frequency, make their appearance in the regular orchestra. Scoring for a military band is a special subject, which lies apart from the scope of this work. Should space permit, (which, however, appears doubtful,) a supplemental chapter on this subject may possibly be added to the next volume. In any case, the present work, being a treatise on the orchestra proper, would be complete without it. ,

It will be seen that, although the organ is enumerated in Chapter II. among orchestral instruments, no mention is made of it later in the volume. The omission is intentional. What it is needful that the student should know about its technique will be found in Chapter XIII. of Applied Forms, while the subject of its combination with the orchestra will be dealt with in the second part of the present work.

The author’s experience as a teacher has convinced him that many students do not know some of the instruments of the orchestra by sight,—cannot, for instance, distinguish between an oboe and a clarinet. It has therefore been thought advisable to give illustrations of most of the instruments spoken of. In a few cases this has been unnecessary, either because, as with the harp, everybody knows the shape of it, or because, as in the case of the serpent, the instrument is no longer in use.

The author offers no apology for the large number of musical examples contained in this volume. He has had more than one reason for introducing so many. In the first place,

he believes that nothing is so stimulating to the imagination of the student as the examination of passages from full scores. When a lad, his own enthusiasm for the art of orchestration— an enthusiasm which has never since abated—was first aroused by studying the few and short passages quoted in Hamilton’s ‘ Catechism of Writing for the Orchestra’; and long before he had a large collection of scores of his own, he was familiar with every example to be seen in Berlioz’s ‘ Instrumentation.’ The author believes that that which was so beneficial to himself will also be found useful to the student.

Another great advantage in such short extracts as those here given is, that they are of much assistance in enabling the student thoroughly to master score-reading. If he has before him the score of a symphony or an opera, his attention is liable to be constantly distracted by the music as a whole ; he will probably skim over passages to get the general impression of the melody or harmony, to say nothing of the chance of his being utterly lost in an elaborate score. But with short passages of only a few bars, in which there are few or no empty staves, his attention is concentrated, not distracted ; and he will probably study these bars until he has at least a fairly good idea of the effect intended by the composer. Such a volume as the present, in which the effect of the examples in the earlier chapters is for the most part by no means difficult to realize, offers the student a graduated course of scorereading, such as he cannot possibly obtain by studying the works from which the various quotations are taken.

In the selection of examples two considerations have guided the author. Firstly, such illustrations have been chosen as best showed the special features of each instrument separately. In many cases important solo passages are given, and though the combination of the various instruments is touched on from time to time, no attempt has been made to deal with it systematically ; this branch of the study belongs properly to the second part of the work. The other point is, that the author has tried, as far as possible, to avoid giving quotations from scores which were likely to be easily accessible to the student ; such, in most cases, are only referred to. For the same reason, comparatively few examples are given which are to be found in the large treatises of Gevaert and Hofmann, though these books, being expensive, are not in the possession of all students. With the exception of some half dozen

passages, every quotation in the volume has been copied from scores in the author’s library. He believes that many of the charming examples from the works of Cherubini and Auber, to say nothing of those from the less familiar compositions of Mozart, Schubert, and others, will be found both instructive and interesting.

One of the chief difficulties encountered by students in beginning to read scores is that of the transposing instruments. No attempt has been made to shirk this ; it has to be overcome, and the sooner the better. To give the earlier examples with the transposing instruments written at their real pitch, is like learning to swim with corks. But, in order to assist the pupil as far as possible, the transposition required is indicated at the beginning of each example, until the chapters are reached in which these instruments are dealt with.

It was originally intended to include in this volume the treatment of solo instruments,—that is to say, the scoring of chamber music; but the full description of their technique occupied so much more space than had been expected, that this subject had to be postponed. It will furnish the material for a chapter in the second volume.

The subject of orchestration is so large, and comprises such a multiplicity of detail, that a great part of the work still remains to be written. The second volume, which will follow the present one as soon as possible, will deal with the important subjects of combination, contrast, colour, balance of tone, accompaniment of voices, arrangements, the scoring for small, or incomplete orchestras, &c. It need hardly be added that no pains will be spared to make the work as complete as possible.

It would be dishonest of the author not to acknowledge his obligations to those who have preceded him in the same direction. While, as in other volumes of this series, he has founded his teaching on the actual practice of the great masters, he has found many valuable hints in the treatise of M. Gevaert, whose great work in two volumes, he considers to be by far the finest book on the subject ever written. In the matter of completeness, indeed, the present work has no pretension to rival that of M. Gevaert; this would be impossible within the limits assigned to it, as will be readily understood when it is said that M. Gevaert’s two quarto volumes contain about 900 examples. A few quotations from works which were not in

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the author’s library have been taken from R. Hofmann’s ‘ Praktische Instrumentationslehre.’

The author desires to thank those publishers who have kindly allowed him to quote from their copyrights, and would especially name Messrs. Schott & Co. and Simrock for their liberality in this respect. He is also indebted to Messrs. Macmillan & Co. for permission to reprint the picture of the Contrafagotto from Grove’s ‘Dictionary of Music and Musicians.’

Once more the author has to thank his friends, Dr. C. W. Pearce and Professor Mahaffy, for kind assistance in revising the proofs. He is also indebted to his friend and former pupil, Mr. Joseph Spawforth, for the preparation of the analytical index.

London, November 1897.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

[click here for the hyperlinked Table of Contents]

N.B.—The numbers refer in every instance to the sections, not to the pages.

Chapter I.—Introduction

Chapter II.—Composition of the modern Orchestra—The Arrangement of the Score

Chapter III.—Stringed Instruments: The Violin and Viola

Chapter IV.—Stringed Instruments: The Violoncello and Contrabasso

Chapter V.—Stringed Instruments played by Plucking: The Harp, Guitar, and Mandoline

Chapter VI.—Wind Instruments: The Flutes

Chapter VII.—Wind Instruments: The Oboe, Cor Anglais, and Bassoon

The Orchestra.

PART I.—TECHNIQUE OF THE INSTRUMENTS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

1. By the term ‘Orchestration ’ is meant the arranging of a piece of music for various instruments. The term; however, is not generally applied to compositions written for solo instruments (such, for example, as quartetts or trios), but only to such as are written for the larger combinations of instruments usually spoken of as “ an orchestra,” or, colloquially, as “ a band.” Such pieces may be either purely instrumental, or they may be for one or more voices accompanied by instruments. In the latter case the word ‘ orchestration ’ refers simply to the manner in which the accompaniments are divided between the various instruments employed.

2. Other terms frequently to be met with as synonyms of “ orchestration ” are “ instrumentation ” and “ scoring.” The former needs no explanation ; the latter has reference to the fact that the composer or arranger writes the parts for the various instruments on different staves, one above another, the whole collection of staves which are intended to be played together being technically known as the “full score,” or simply “ the score.” Of the component parts of a modern score we shall speak presently.

3. The science of orchestration, as practised at the present day, is the most recently developed branch of music, being not much more than a century old. The present is not the place for a history of this subject, for which we would refer our readers to the valuable work of M. Henri Lavoix*, but a word or two may be said for the guidance of students.

4. Although in the scores of Bach, Handel, and their

* Histoire de 1’Instrumentation, par H. Lavoix,fils, (Paris, Firmin-Didot, 1878.) ’

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contemporaries, we not only meet with nearly every instrument found in modern orchestras—the chief exceptions being the different members of the clarinet family, the ophicleide, and the tuba—but also with many which are now obsolete, the manner of their employment is so different from that now adopted that the student will derive comparatively little benefit, from the point of view of orchestration, from the study of these works, highly interesting and instructive as they are in other respects. Modern instrumentation may be said to have originated with Haydn and Mozart, though more recent composers have made considerable advances in this department of their art.

5. Instrumentation is often spoken of as “orchestral colouring,” and there is a great deal of truth in the simile. The orchestra is to the composer what his palette is to the painter. Some writers have fancifully endeavoured to compare the tones of different instruments to various colours ; but this is carrying the analogy too far. Yet if the student will compare the effect of, let us say, a symphony of Beethoven or Mendelssohn played as a pianoforte duet with the same work performed, as intended, by the orchestra, he will feel that in the latter case the various qualities of tone of the stringed, wood, and brass instruments give quite a different character to the work. The arrangement for the piano bears to the original much the same relation that an engraving does to an oilpainting. In the latter case there is colouring, which is wanting in the former.

6. The object of the present work is, therefore, to teach the student, as far as can be taught by an instruction book, how to use the various tone-colours which the orchestra offers him. But this is only possible to a limited extent. We can, of course, explain the compass, mechanism, &c., of the different instruments, and show how they can be used, and have been used, singly and in combination ; we can give general principles as to contrast, balance of tone, and similar matters ; but the feeling for orchestral colouring must be, like the invention of melody, a natural gift, and not the result of mere calculation. Here again the analogy with painting may be employed. An artist may have a thorough knowledge of every separate colour in his box, and yet not be a great colourist. Further, just as every great painter has his own peculiar style of colouring, each great composer has his own method of scoring; and it would be no more possible to an experienced musician to mistake a score of Mozart for one of Wagner than it would for an art-connoisseur to mistake a painting by Titian for one by J. W. Turner.

7. It may, perhaps, not be superfluous to remind the student that the most excellent orchestration will not compensate for

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the absence of other merits in his work. It is quite useless for anyone to attempt to write for the orchestra before he has obtained a complete mastery of the other branches of composition. Here, again, the analogy with painting holds good. No sensible man would ever think of trying to paint a picture before he had thoroughly learned drawing and perspective. In the one case the result, judged as a work of art, would be just as incomplete as in the other.

8. In addition to the general knowledge of composition just spoken of, there are certain special qualifications needful for the student before he can approach orchestral writing with any hope of success. Of these one of the most obvious is the ability to read a full score. In the case of the older masters, such as Haydn and Mozart, this is a matter of no very great difficulty ; but to realize with the eye, even approximately, the effect of the more elaborate combinations to be found in such modern scores as those of Brahms, Dvorak, or Wagner is often a formidable task, requiring much practice and experience. Yet the ability to do this with tolerable ease is absolutely indispensable for anyone who would learn to write for the orchestra. A few hints to aid the student in this matter will be of use.

9. It may be assumed that his studies in harmony and counterpoint will have thoroughly familiarized him with the alto and tenor clefs, both of which are constantly to be met with in orchestral scores. A knowledge of the soprano C clef is also necessary ; for, though no longer employed for instruments, it is very generally used for the soprano voice in modern scores published in France and Germany, while it is almost universal in older editions of operas, oratorios, and other vocal works. If the student finds any difficulty with these clefs, we recommend him, as a preliminary study, to get some of the old editions of English church music, such as Boyce’s or Arnold’s cathedral music, or the anthems of Croft or Greene. In all these the soprano, alto, and tenor parts are written in the C clefs, and, as there is no accompaniment except a figured bass, the student will be forced to master these clefs if he would get any idea of the music. It will, of course, require some little time to acquire facility in reading them ; but it can be done, and it must be done, if his progress is not to be barred at the outset.

10._As soon as the student can read these clefs with ease he will be ready for the next step forward. We advise him to take some string quartetts for his first study in modern score reading. All the quartetts of the great masters, from Haydn downwards, are now to be had in score, for a few pence each, in the excellent Payne edition. Though the scores only contain four staves each, their reading will be found most useful

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practice, owing to the independence of the parts. The student must endeavour to hear each part in his mind’s ear distinctly and simultaneously. If he be a pianist, we advise him not to try to help himself by playing the pieces on the piano. In the first place, he will find many passages in which the harmony is so disposed that it cannot be played, as written, by two hands ; and, secondly, it is indispensable that he should acquire thoroughly the power of what the late John Hullah used to call “hearing with the eye.”

11. When the score of a quartett or quintett no longer presents any difficulty, the student should proceed to the simpler orchestral scores, such as the symphonies of Haydn and Mozart. Here he will be confronted for the first time with the difficulty of reading the transposing instruments,— the clarinets in A and B, the trumpets and the horns. In the chapters of this volume in which these instruments are treated of, he will find full instructions on this point. The number of staves which he has to read simultaneously will now be increased, varying from six to ten or twelve; but the. difficulty will not increase in the same proportion, as the wind parts in these older scores are mostly simple, and often of secondary importance, to say nothing of the fact that they often double the string parts, either in the unison or the octave.

12. The attention should not be confined exclusively to instrumental works ; it will be well for the student also to make himself acquainted with the oratorios of Haydn (the ‘ Creation ’ and the ‘ Seasons ’), and with the principal operas of Mozart. When he can read intelligently such scores as those of ‘Don Juan’ or ‘Figaro,’ all the worst of his troubles will be over. The scores of Beethoven, Schubert, or Mendelssohn will offer comparatively little difficulty then, though some of the modern works, such as Wagner’s ‘ Tristan,’ or Berlioz’s ‘ Faust,’ never become really easy to read, even for the most experienced musician.

13. Thanks to the diffusion of cheap music in recent years, and to the enterprise of some of the principal German and English publishers, the full scores of the works of the great composers are mostly to be had now at very reasonable prices. But if any of our readers are unable to obtain many of these, they may still acquire considerable facility in score-reading by carefully studying the numerous passages which will be quoted in the present work. It will not, however, be sufficient merely to get a vague general idea of them ; the student must carefully piece them together, so to speak, building up the chords (if necessary) a note at a time, until he is sure that he hears clearly in his mind’s ear the effect designed by the composer.

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14. This brings us naturally to speak of the second qualification needful for the student of orchestration, and one which is of at least equal importance with the power of reading a score. In speaking just now of hearing clearly “ the effect designed by the composer,” we meant much more than merely hearing the correct melody or harmony. It is quite impossible for anyone to write effectively for the orchestra unless he has at least a fairly good idea of the sounds he is putting on the paper. It is not enough, therefore, when he is reading a score to hear in his mind the right chords ; he must hear them with their proper quality of tone. The chord of C major played by strings sounds absolutely different from the same chord in the same position played by clarinets and bassoons, or by brass instruments. The student must be able to call up in his mind at will, at least approximately, the tone of all the instruments in the orchestra, either singly or in combination.

15. It may be at once admitted that this is the most difficult of the preliminary tasks set before him in the study of instrumentation, and it can only be acquired by time and patience, the amount of the former varying greatly according to the opportunities enjoyed by the student of hearing orchestral music. To the dwellers in large cities such opportunities , are frequent ; but the young musician who lives in a remote country place labours under a great disadvantage. This is more especially the case as regards the reed instruments. Everybody presumably knows the sound of the violin, and nearly everybody would recognize the tone of a brass instrument, though many might be puzzled to distinguish between the sound of a horn, a trumpet, and a trombone. But nobody who had never heard an oboe or a clarinet could, like the German philosopher, evolve the idea of their tone out of his own moral consciousness ; they must be heard before they can be identified.

16. Presuming that the student has, at least occasionally, the opportunity of hearing orchestral music, the best way of acquiring the power of which we are now speaking is the following. Supposing that he is going to hear some work, such as a symphony or overture, of which he has been able to buy or borrow the score, he should read the score carefully at least three or four times before going to the Concert, using his utmost endeavours to imagine the quality of tone of the various passages. He should especially notice the solos for the different wind instruments, for these are they which at first will give him the most trouble. He should take the score with him to the concert, and remark particularly where the music sounds otherwise than he had imagined—and why. Sometimes he will probably have heard a passage in his

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mind with the wrong quality of tone, at other times with the wrong balance of power in the parts. Then let him, as soon as possible after the concert, while his impressions are still fresh, read the score again two or three times, to fix in his mind what he has heard. The next time a similar opportunity presents itself, he will find that he can form a much more accurate idea beforehand of what he is going to hear, and with attention and practice, the power of which we are now speaking can be acquired to an extent of which those who have not tried it have very little idea.*

17. Closely allied with the faculty just treated of, and, in fact, almost a necessary corollary of it, is the converse power, which may be described as “seeing with the ear.” By this is meant the ability, while listening to the orchestra, of telling by what instrument or instruments any particular passage is being played. This can only be carried to a certain extent. It may be doubted whether any one, however gifted, could, on hearing a chord played by the full orchestra, write it down exactly as it stood in the composer’s score ; but he should at least be able to tell pretty nearly what instruments are being- used, and, in cases where only a few are employed, it would often be possible to write down the passage with absolute accuracy. This faculty of analysis will be of great use, not only in assisting him in score reading, but in developing his feeling for tone colour, so that in composing he may know what combination of instruments is required to produce a special effect, just as a painter knows how he must mix his colours to obtain a particular tint.

18. Some practical knowledge, even if only slight, of orchestral instruments will be of the utmost value to the student. Unless he knows something of the mechanism of an instrument, he is very likely to write ineffectively for it, even if he does not (as is sometimes the case with beginners,) write passages of almost impracticable difficulty. Afore especially is this the case with the brass instruments. The student’s greatest trouble is probably in most cases the writing for the horns. If he can get even a few lessons on the horn, or (failing this,) on the cornet, he will find the knowledge thus acquired of the greatest service to him. The same is true of other instruments ; and we strongly advise him to try his hand at as

* The author trusts he will not be thought unduly egotistical, if, for the encouragement of students, he gives his own experience. Living during all his boyhood in a small country town, he never had the opportunity of hearing a full orchestra till he was eighteen years of age, though by that time he had read a considerable number of scores. By pursuing the plan here recommended, he was able in a comparatively short time to make himself perfectly familiar with the tone of all the instruments, and could call them up in his mind at will, separately or combined. He can therefore speak confidently as to the practicability of the method ; and the power once acquired will never again be lost.

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many as he possibly can, even though he may not become really proficient on any.

19. No less valuable—from some points of view even more so—is actual experience in the orchestra itself, where this is obtainable. In this respect the students at our large music schools have an enormous advantage. To one who wishes to compose for the orchestra, nothing is more stimulating to the imagination than the frequent hearing of orchestral music. If therefore he has the opportunity of taking part in such performances, let him by all means avail himself of it, even though the orchestra should be poor or incomplete. Besides this, he may learn much from personal intercourse with the players, who can tell him many things about their instruments which it would be difficult to find in any instruction book. If not able himself to take part in orchestral performances, he should listen to as many as possible ; for it is absolutely beyond the power of any one to write well for the orchestra unless he is quite familiar with the tones of all the instruments.*

20. It must not be supposed that it is necessary for the student to defer commencing the study of instrumentation until he has completely finished the preliminary work of which we have spoken in this chapter. On the contrary, he will probably find much assistance in his task by reading the descriptions here given of the various instruments and their employment. But there is no short cut to writing for the orchestra. Sooner or later the qualifications here spoken of must be acquired, if the student would essay this branch of composition with any hope of success.

21. In the present work we shall first speak of the composition of the modern orchestra, and of the various ways in which the parts are arranged in a score. We shall next deal with each instrument in detail, after which we shall have to treat of their employment as solo instruments ; this will include the whole question of the scoring of chamber music. We shall then proceed to the practically exhaustless subject of orchestral combination, and shall conclude with some hints on arranging music for the orchestra, and on writing for small and incomplete orchestras.

* If the author may be pardoned one more personal reminiscence, be would say that he attributes much of his own knowledge of orchestral writing to the fact that he was for twenty-four years connected with the Crystal Palace, and during the whole of that time had opportunities of hearing the orchestra of that institution two or three times a week, it would be difficult to overestimate the benefit he thus obtained.

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CHAPTER II.

COMPOSITION OF THE MODERN ORCHESTRA----THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCORE.

22. The instruments of which the modern full orchestra is composed may be divided roughly into three groups— stringed, wind, and percussion instruments. In the first of these groups the sound is produced by setting in vibration strings, made generally either of catgut or of wire. In wind instruments the tone results from the vibration of a column of air within a tube ; while in percussion instruments the tone is produced by the vibration either of a stretched membrane, or skin, as in the various kinds of drums, or of more or less elastic bodies, generally of metal, as in the case of bells, triangles, or cymbals.*

23. Each of these groups can be subdivided. Taking first the stringed instruments, there are three different ways in which tones can be obtained from strings. They may be set in vibration either by friction, as in the violin and other instruments of the same family, which are played by drawing a bow across the strings, or by plucking the strings** with the fingers, as with the harp and guitar, or with a plectrum (the mandoline), or by striking them with hammers, as in the old dulcimer, the modern pianoforte, and the Hungarian Czimbalom.

24. Of these three subdivisions the first is by far the most important, so much so, indeed, that when the term “ strings ” is used, instruments played with a bow are always intended. Of these, four varieties are employed in the orchestra—the violin, the viola, the violoncello, and the double-bass, or contrabasso.*** The nature of each of these instruments will be explained later in this work ; it will suffice to say now that the violin is the smallest and the highest in pitch of the family, then comes the viola, next the violoncello, while the double-bass is the largest and deepest of the instruments.

* In the case of the rarely-used xylophone, the tune is produced by the vibration of bars of wood.

** In the hurdy-gurdy the tone is produced by the friction on the strings of a wheel revolving in contact with them. Though this instrument (French Vielle, German Leier,) is no longer used in the orchestra, it is mentioned here, as it is occasionally to be met with in the scores of Haydn and Mozart.

*** Berlioz in his ‘ Orchestration ’ speaks of an instrument invented by M. Vuillaume, the ‘ Octobass,’ the compass of which is an octave below that of the violoncello ; but it has never been generally introduced into the orchestra, the only instance of its employment known to the author being in the ‘ Benedictus ’ of Gounod’s Cecilian Mass.

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25. An important difference between the strings of an orchestra and the wind and percussion instruments is, that the parts for the first are always played by several instruments tp each, while, excepting in the very largest orchestras, at grand festivals, &c., the wind and percussion parts are never doubled. The violins are almost invariably divided into firsts and seconds, each having an independent part, though they sometimes play in unison ; the violoncellos and double-basses also generally play in octaves.* The result is that music for the strings of the orchestra is mostly written in four-part harmony, arranged thus—

Violino 1.
Violino 2.
Viola.
Violoncello e Basso.

(‘ Basso ’ is frequently used as an abbreviation of ‘ Contra- basso.’) For this reason the strings of the orchestra are sometimes spoken of as the “ quartett,”—an inaccurate expression, which properly applies only to music written for four solo instruments.

26. Of the stringed instruments of the second class (those in which the strings are plucked,) only the harp is in ordinary use in the orchestra. The guitar and mandoline are also exceptionally to be met with. The pianoforte, the only important instrument of the third class, is hardly ever employed with the orchestra, except as a solo instrument, though examples of its use may be seen in Gade’s symphony, No. 5, in D minor, and in Berlioz’s ‘ Lélio.’

27. Wind instruments are often roughly divided into two classes, wood and brass. This division, however, is not strictly accurate, as some of the former, such, for instance, as the flute, are frequently made of metal. A much better classification is that founded upon the method in which the sound is produced. This gives three varieties. In the first, which includes the various kinds of flutes, the air in the body of the instrument is set in vibration by blowing through a round hole situated near the closed end of the tube.** The only flutes in general use in the orchestra of the present day are the ordinary flute, sometimes called the ‘ Concert Flute,’ and the Piccolo, the pitch of which is an octave higher than that of

* For this reason their part in a score is often marked ‘ Bassi.’ When the student meets with this word on the lowest staff of a score, he must understand that it always shows that the part is to be played by both instruments, unless there be a separate staff above it for the violoncellos, in which case ‘ Bassi ’ stands as an abbreviation of ' Contrabassi.’

** The old flûte-à-bec, and the modern flageolet, which are blown through the end of the tube, the construction of which resembles that of a penny whistle, or of a flue-pipe in an organ, are no longer used in the ordinary orchestra.

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the large flute. Other varieties, more rarely met with, will be mentioned in their proper place.

28. The second group of wind instruments includes the various kinds of reed instruments. Of these there are two important subdivisions—those with a double, and those with a single reed. In both varieties the reed is placed at the end of the tube. The double-reed instruments have a conical tube, widening gradually from the mouthpiece to the bell. The most generally employed of these are the oboe and the bassoon. Less frequently met with, especially in older music, are the Cor Anglais, which is in reality an alto oboe, a fifth lower in pitch, and the double-bassoon, more often called by its Italian name, the Contrafagotto, which is an octave lower than the ordinary bassoon.

29. By far the most important of the single-reed instruments are the clarinets. Of these, as will be seen in a later chapter, there are several varieties ; we will now only mention, in addition to the ordinary instruments, the Corno di Bassetto (seldom, if ever, used now, excepting in military bands,) which bears the same relation to the clarinet that the Cor Anglais does to the oboe, and the Bass Clarinet, the pitch of which is an octave below that of the clarinet in B flat or A.

30. An important difference between these instruments and those with a double reed is that the tube of the former is cylindrical, that is, of the same diameter throughout, while in the oboe and bassoon it is conical. It will be shown later that this fact makes a great difference in the mechanism of the instruments. Single-reed instruments are also made with a conical tube ; but these—the family of saxophones—are at present almost exclusively confined to military music, though a few modern French composers have occasionally introduced them into the scores of their operas.

30. The third group of wind instruments is that which is generally known as ‘ the brass.’ These instruments are played by means of a mouthpiece inserted into the smaller end of the tube. By varying the pressure of the breath, the player can obtain from them different notes of the harmonic series, while the length of the tube can be altered by means to be hereafter described when we come to speak of these instruments in detail.

32. The brass instruments commonly employed in the orchestra are the horns, trumpets, trombones, and (less frequently,) the ophicleide, or the tuba. Of these, the highest in pitch is the trumpet, which may be termed the soprano of the family. As good trumpet players are rare, the parts written for these instruments are frequently played on the cornet-à-piston—a much easier instrument to manipulate, but far inferior to the trumpet in nobility and beauty of tone. Its

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use is, however, so general that some modern composers write for it in their scores instead of the trumpet.

33. Speaking in general terms, it may be said that the horn is an octave below the trumpet. We shall see later that this statement is only partially correct ; but for the present it will suffice to give a rough idea of the position, as regards pitch, of this instrument in the orchestra. We defer to a later chapter the discussion of the difference in quality, &c., between these various instruments ; our present object is merely to enumerate the constituent parts of the modern orchestra.

34. Of the trombones, three kinds are in use in England and Germany, which, from their compass, are called respectively the alto, tenor, and bass trombones. In France and Italy only tenor trombones are employed; consequently, as will be seen later, French composers write for these instruments in a rather different manner from that adopted by the great German masters. It ought to be added that in many works, especially of the older composers, trombones are not used at all.

35. The ophicleide, which is to be found in many French scores of the first half of the present century, and which was employed by Mendelssohn in his‘Midsummer Night’s Dream’ and ‘ Elijah,’ is now almost entirely superseded by the tuba, which, besides being easier to play, has a larger compass, more perfect intonation, and blends better with other instruments. Both the ophicleide and tuba furnish the lowest bass part of the harmony for brass. Neither instrument, however, is so frequently employed in the orchestra as the other members of this group ; like the Cor Anglais and the Contrafagotto, they can hardly be considered as essential parts of the orchestra of the present day.*

36. There remains to mention one instrument, which, though not generally included among the wind instruments, belongs to them rather than to either of the other groups. This is the organ, which differs essentially from all the other instruments of which we have been speaking in the fact that while they are ‘ monophonic,’ that is, producing but one note at a time, the organ is ‘ polyphonic,’ and capable of full harmony. In the orchestra the organ is mostly used for the accompaniment of sacred music, though it is also sometimes employed in the opera. It is also occasionally treated as a solo instrument, concertos with orchestral accompaniment being composed for it. It is not, however, like other wind instruments, a regular constituent of the orchestra. The same remark applies to the harmonium, another polyphonic instrument, the tones of which are produced by the vibration of ‘ free reeds.’

* The Serpent, a wooden instrument played with a mouthpiece, though met with as late as the time of Mendelssohn, is now quite obsolete, and is only mentioned here because it is found in some of his scores.

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37. We now come to the third group—the instruments of percussion. Of these, as already mentioned (§22), there are two classes, the first, in which the tone results from the vibration of a stretched membrane, being by far the more important. This is the family of drums. The only kind of drum which may be said to have real artistic value is the kettle-drum, for this is the only one which produces a distinct musical note ; all the others give only an indefinite sound. Every complete orchestra has at least two (frequently three) kettle-drums (timpani,) played by one player, and tuned to different notes. Occasionally more than one pair of kettledrums is employed.

38. The other drums to be found, though less frequently, in the orchestra are the bass drum, generally known by its French name of Grosse Caisse, and the military, or side-drum. These are very seldom used in symphonic music, though they are not uncommon in modern operatic scores. Their chief use is in military bands and for dance music, in both of which kettledrums are much less often employed. The tambourine, though not properly to be called a drum, also belongs to this family, as its tone is produced by the vibration of a stretched membrane.

39. The second class of percussion instruments—that in which the sound results from the vibration of metallic bodies— can also be subdivided into those which produce a distinct musical note and those which do not. The former include the various kinds of bells, and the Glockenspiel, the latter, the cymbals, triangle, and gong. The gong is only used for special dramatic effects; the cymbals and triangle (the latter especially) are much more frequently employed, their function being to mark the rhythm. To this class also belong the castagnettes, sometimes used in dance music, of which the sound, produced by the striking together of two pieces of wood, can hardly be called music, and ranks very little higher than the “bones” played by the corner-man of a troupe of nigger minstrels. The bells and Glockenspiel are only exceptionally used in the orchestra.

40. Having now enumerated the instruments employed in the orchestra, we proceed to tabulate them, marking with an asterisk those less frequently used.

I. Stringed Instruments. (a) Instruments played with a bow :

Violin.
Viola.
Violoncello.
Double-bass (Contrabasso}.

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(b) Instruments the strings of which are plucked : Harp.

*Guitar.
*Mandoline.

*Pianoforte.

II. Wind Instruments.

(a) Instruments sounded through a hole in the side of the tube :

Flute.
Piccolo.

(b) Instruments played with a double reed : Oboe.

*Cor Anglais.
Bassoon (Fagotto),

*Double Bassoon (Contrafagotto).

(c) Instruments played with a single reed : Clarinet. '

*Corno di Bassetto.
*Bass Clarinet.
*Saxophone.

(d) Instruments played with a mouthpiece :
Trumpet.
*Cornet-à-piston.
Horn.
Trombone.
*Ophicleide.
*Tuba.

(e) Polyphonic instruments :
*Organ.
*Harmonium.

III. Percussion Instruments.

(a) Tone produced by the vibration of a stretched membrane :

Kettle-Drums (Timpani).
*Bass Drum (Grosse Caisse).
*Side Drum.
*Tambourine.

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(6) Tone produced by the vibration of metallic bodies:
*Bells.
*Glockenspiel.
*Triangle.
*Cymbals.
*Gong (Tam-tam), *Castagnettes.

41. We said above (§25,) that the string parts in an orchestral work were always played by several instruments to each part. The number, however, varies widely in different orchestras, though the proportion of each part is (or at least should be,) approximately preserved. In a small orchestra there will probably be from six to eight first violins, about the same number of second violins, four or five violas, four violoncellos, and three or four (better four) double-basses. In a large orchestra, such as that of the Philharmonic Society, these numbers will probably be at least doubled ; but, as the number of wind instruments will most likely be the same in both cases, the balance of tone will be very different in the two. This question is one of considerable importance: we shall return to it later in this work.

42. The wind and percussion instruments to be found in the ordinary full orchestra, as employed by Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Brahms, and Dvorak, are the following :—

2 Flutes,
(sometimes a Piccolo in addition,)
2 Oboes,
2 Clarinets,
2 Bassoons,*
(occasionally also a Contrafagotto),
2, 3, or 4 Horns,
2 (occasionally 3) Trumpets,
3 Trombones,
1 Tuba (less frequently,)
1 pair of Kettle-drums,
(sometimes also Bass Drum, Cymbals, and Triangle).

43. If other instruments than these are required, the general practice has been to have them played by one of the performers on an instrument of the same family. Thus, the piccolo is often used instead of the second flute ; the part for the Cor Anglais, when there is one, would be taken by one of the oboes, and that for a bass clarinet by one of the clarinet players. But of late years the tendency has

* In some modern French scores four bassoons are employed.

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been to increase the number of instruments by using three of each kind of reed instrument. Thus in Wagner’s ‘ Lohengrin ’ and ‘ Tristan,’ we find two flutes and piccolo, two oboes and cor anglais, two clarinets and bass clarinet, and three bassoons, while the “ Tuba mirum” of Dvorak’s “Requiem” is no less fully scored.* We strongly advise the student to write only for the orchestra in ordinary use, as otherwise he will put a serious obstacle in the way of the performance of his music, should he be fortunate enough to get a chance of a hearing.

44. Before proceeding to speak of the instruments of the orchestra in detail, it will be advisable to say something concerning the order in which they are to be arranged in the score. Unfortunately there is no uniformity in this matter, though there are two systems now generally adopted, of which we shall first speak, mentioning afterwards the chief variations, and referring to such other methods of arranging the instruments as are now nearly or quite obsolete, but with which it is necessary for the student who reads scores to be acquainted.

45. An order to be seen almost exclusively in scores by French and Italian composers, though formerly very generally adopted also in Germany, consists in placing the three upper string parts (the two violins and viola,) on the three upper staves, then the wood wind (flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons), below these the horns-, trumpets and drums, and on the lowest staff the violoncellos and double-basses, which are written on the same line, excepting when there is an independent part for the violoncellos. If the score contain trombones, these are generally written above, but occasionally below the kettle-drums. In the operas of Meyerbeer, Méhul, and Herold this arrangement is to be seen, and also in the first editions of many of the scores of Mozart and Haydn. Spontini in his ‘Vestale’ and ‘Fernand Cortez ’ places the violas below all the wind instruments, and immediately above the basses—an inconvenient plan, which has nothing to recommend it.

46. The order most frequently adopted by modern composers, and in every way the best, is the following. The wood wind are placed at the top of the score, next below them are the brass, then the percussion instruments, and lowest of all the strings. With one exception, to be mentioned directly, the instruments of each group are arranged in order of pitch, exactly as is done with voices in writing a quartet or chorus. We have already seen this (§25,) in

* There are parts for piccolo, two flutes, two oboes, cor anglais, two clarinets, bass clarinet, two bassoons, contrafagotto, four horns, four trumpets, three trombones, tuba, timpani and tam-tam, besides the usual stringed instruments.

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the case of the strings. Similarly with the wood, the flutes have the top staff, or staves, because, as we shall see later, these are the highest of all the wind instruments. Next come the oboes, then the clarinets, and lastly the bassoons. Generally two wind instruments of the same kind are written on one staff; this makes the score easier to read, as there are fewer staves to look at at once. But if the two parts are very independent, as in contrapuntal work, and especially if they cross one another much, it is better to take a separate staff for each.

47. If any of the less frequently used instruments spoken of in §40 are employed, they are placed next to the other instruments of the same family. Thus the piccolo, being higher than the flute, takes the top line of the score ; * the cor anglais is placed next below the oboes, the bass clarinet under the clarinets, and the contrafagotto below the bassoons. If other percussion instruments than the timpani are employed, these are placed between them and the strings.

48. The exception referred to in §46 is found in the order of placing the brass instruments. Though the trumpets are higher in pitch than the horns, they are generally written below them in the score. The reason for this is, that the horns are so frequently used in combination with the wood that it is more convenient to write them on the next staves; it often makes the score easier to read. Below the horns come the trumpets, then the trombones, and lastly the ophicleide or tuba, if it is used. We have already incidentally said (§45) that the trombones are occasionally placed below the drums; but it is much better to keep all the brass instruments together.

49. When the score contains a part for the harp, this is mostly placed immediately above the strings, but occasionally** between the violas and the violoncellos, while in Gade’s 4 Crusaders ’ it is exceptionally to be found at the top of the score. An organ part, when there is one; is generally either immediately above or immediately under the violoncellos and basses. In a concerto the part for the solo instrument is now usually placed above the strings, though in the older editions it was sometimes to be found at the top, and sometimes at the bottom of the score. In vocal music the voice parts are generally placed above the violoncellos, sometimes above the first violins, dividing the strings from the rest of the orchestra.

* In many French scores—e. g. in those of Auber, where there is only one large flute and one piccolo, the latter is placed below the flute, because it is mostly played by the second flute player. The arrangement given in the text is not only more usual, but decidedly preferable.

** As in the scores of Auber’s ' Le Dieu et la Bayadère ’ and Mendelssohn’s ' Antigone.’

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50. We now tabulate this arrangement, which we recommend students to follow:

Wood

Flutes (Piccolo).
Oboes. (Cor Anglais.)
Clarinets. (Bass Clarinet.)
Bassoons. (Contrafagotto.)

Brass

Horns.
Trumpets.
Trombones.
(Tuba.)

Percussion

Timpani.
(Grosse Caisse, &c.)

(Harp.)

Strings

Violino I.
Violino 2.
Viola.
Violoncello.
Contrabasso.

51. An important modification of the above order is sometimes to be found—mostly in French scores. This consists in arranging the whole of the wind (wood and brass together), according to their pitch. The instruments are then placed as follows:

Flutes.
Oboes.
Clarinets.
Trumpets.
Horns.
Bassoons.
Trombones.
(Percussion, Harp, and Strings, as above.)

52. A third plan, now no longer employed, but with which it is necessary that the student should be acquainted, as it is to be seen in many scores of fifty or sixty years ago, is that in which the instruments were arranged in their order of comparative importance, those least used being at the top of the score. The drums were on the first line, then the trumpets, horns, and trombones ; * below these the flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons, and lowest of all, the strings.

* In the original edition of Schumann’s 3rd symphony the trombones are separated from the rest of the brass and placed immediately over the strings.

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53. It is only during the present century that any recognized system has been adopted in the arrangement of a score. In the original editions of the works of the great composers, the utmost disorder prevails. A few examples may usefully be given. In the score of Haydn’s ‘Passione,’ published in 1801, we find, at p. 20, the wind parts in the following order :— horns, oboes, flutes, clarinets, bassoons, trombones ; at p. 58 in the same volume the flute is above the oboes, and the trombones are above the bassoons. Even more irregular is the disposition of the instruments in the score of Cherubini’s ‘Lodoiska’ (1791). In the overture the parts are arranged thus:—drums, horns, trumpets, oboes, clarinets, flutes, 1st violins, 2nd violins, viola, bassoons, trombones, basses. To this must be added that many of the old scores (eg. the first edition of Mozart’s ‘ Don Giovanni ’) were printed in oblong folio, the result being that in many cases there was not room on a page for all the lines of the score. In this case the least used instruments (generally trumpets and drums), were printed in an appendix at the end of the volume. In the score of ‘Lodoiska,’ just mentioned, though not oblong, the whole of the wind parts of the third finale are thus given, and it is all but impossible to realize the effect of the movement without writing out a fresh score. The student must be prepared for such irregularities as those here noted, and others which we have not space to enumerate, whenever he is examining the older editions of full scores.

54. We have thought it advisable to enter in some detail into this subject, as it is one which is likely to give the student trouble if he approaches it without previous preparation. The usual plan of writing the names of the instruments once for all at the beginning of a movement renders it necessary that we should know in what order we are likely to find them. Wagner in his later scores indicates the instruments at the beginning of every line. With an orchestra so large as that for which he writes (§43), this is a great convenience, almost a necessity; but with the ordinary orchestra the arrangement is now so systematic that it would be superfluous to repeat the indications on every page. If the student is thoroughly familiar with the regular order of the instruments, he will soon learn to recognize and remember any variations he may meet with.

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CHAPTER III.

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS : THE VIOLIN AND VIOLA.

55. The stringed instruments spoken of in §24, §25, (more accurately, though less frequently described as “ bowed instruments,”) may be regarded as the groundwork of the modern orchestra ; and it is with these, therefore, that the student should first become acquainted. There are several reasons for the importance given to them in orchestral writing. In the first place they have between them a very extensive compass.

From the lowest note of the double-bass ((see figure)) to the highest note found in orchestral music for the violins ((see figure)) is exactly six octaves ; and although the extreme upper notes are very seldom met with, it is by no means uncommon in modern music to find violin passages written up to A or B in alt, thus giving the strings a range of five octaves and a half. Consequently, anything which a composer wishes to write can, so far as its compass is concerned, be played on one at least of the stringed instruments.

56. Another important advantage possessed by stringed over wind instruments is that of their facility of execution. This applies more especially to the violin. Almost any passages, however rapid, are practicable on the violin ; the exceptions will be noted later in this chapter. The same may be said of the viola and violoncello, though very rapid passages are less frequently written for these instruments ; on the double-bass, owing to the greater length and thickness of the strings, such passages are less effective, and in some cases impossible to perform clearly. It is also possible on stringed instruments, as will be seen presently, to produce more than one note at a time—a resource not at the command of a player on a wind instrument.

57. It must further be noticed that it is far easier to obtain different gradations of tone on stringed than on wind instruments. This is more particularly the case as regards pianissimo

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effects, which are equally easy to produce in any part of the compass. One other point remains to be mentioned. Strings can be played continuously for any reasonable length of time without fatiguing the performer. With wind instruments, on the other hand, it is necessary to introduce rests from time to time, not only for the sake of the player’s lungs, but also for his lips, the muscles of which absolutely require intervals of repose, without which it would soon become impossible to obtain what is technically known as a proper embouchure.

THE VIOLIN.

58. The violin, music for which is invariably written in the G clef, has four strings, which are tuned in perfect fifths, thus :—

It must be said here, once for all, that on all stringed instruments, that string which gives the 'highest note is always called the first string. To obtain the intermediate notes between those produced by what are called the “ open ” strings, i.e. strings not touched by the fingers of the left hand, each string is artificially shortened by pressing it against the finger-board with one of the fingers. The result of this is that the part of the string between the finger and the “nut” of the violin, being held close to the finger-board, is unable to vibrate, and the tone is produced only by the part which lies between the finger and the bridge. In other words, the finger becomes an artificial “ nut.” If the left hand of the player be close to the nut, the notes produced by each finger on the four

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strings will be the following. The sign [o] indicates the open string :—

It will be seen that, excepting G, each of the notes sounded by an open string can also be produced as a stopped note on the string immediately below it. It must further be said that the intermediate semitones are produced with the same fingering. Thus, on the fourth string the second finger can equally well play B flat instead of B natural, or the third finger C sharp instead of C.

59. But the compass of each string is by no means restricted to the interval of a fifth shown in the above table. By means of what is technically called “ shifting,” that is moving the left hand up the neck of the violin toward the player, many other “ positions ” are possible. Of these, eleven are practicable, but not more than seven are in general use ; those above this would only be employed on the first string when the most extreme high notes of the instrument . are required. The student who does not play the violin himself will have no difficulty in understanding these positions, if he will remember that each is one note higher than the preceding. We have seen that in the position given in §58, called the “ first position,” the first finger stops A, the second B, and so on, on the G string. Now if the hand is moved along the neck of the violin so that the first finger stops B instead of A, it is clear that all the other fingers will produce a note one degree of the scale higher than before. This will be the second position. If the first finger stops C, we have the third position, if D, the fourth, and so on till we reach the seventh position, in which a scale played on the four strings in succession will evidently be seven notes higher than that which we obtained in the first position.

It is easily seen that, the open strings being now unavailable, we have only four notes on each string, instead of the five of our previous example.

60. From what has been said in the last paragraph, the student will see that each string has a compass of considerably over an octave. As this book is not a violin tutor, this is not the place to discuss the particular position in which

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any passage should be played; that is a matter which concerns the executant rather than the composer. The higher positions were hardly ever used in orchestral music by the older composers. Even Haydn and Mozart seldom, except in solo passages, wrote above F (5th position) (See figure)

Beethoven was the first to write extreme high notes for the violin. In the final movement of his overture to ‘Egmont’ we find the C in altissimo, a note which only can be reached in the ninth position.

61. Though in general the position in which a passage is to be played is left to the performer, we not infrequently find a particular string (most frequently the fourth,) indicated by the composer for the production of a special effect, as in the following well-known passage :—

Here Beethoven wishes the whole melody to be played on the G and D strings ; this will, of course, be in the higher positions. The reason is, that the lower strings, especially the fourth, have a different quality of tone in their upper parts, probably because of the different relation between the length and the thickness of the vibrating portion. It is difficult to describe in words the exact difference in tone ; the student should, if possible, get a violinist to play a passage to him on the D string, and then to repeat it on the G string; but it may be said that there will be less brilliancy but more fulness and body of tone in the latter case than in the former.

62. The passage quoted above is written for a solo violin; but the effect of a large number of violins all playing on the fourth string is far greater than that of a single instrument. A fine example of this effect is found in the first act of ‘ Lohengrin ’:—

Every one who has heard Wagner’s great work will remember this passage, played by the whole mass of the violins, both firsts and seconds. In many cases orchestral players

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prefer to render an expressive melody in this way, even where it is not specially prescribed by the composer.*

63. It was said above (§58,) that the intermediate semitones of the chromatic scale were played with the same linger as the diatonic notes nearest to them. Thus in playing a chromatic scale, a violinist generally fingers as follows:**

There are two points to notice about these scales : first, that in the first position, as with a diatonic scale, the notes D, A, and E can either be played on the open strings or with the fourth finger ; and secondly, that the first, second and third fingers are each employed for two consecutive semitones, and the fourth finger only for one note. It will be self-evident that this successive use of the same finger twice makes rapid chromatic scales much more difficult to play than diatonic.

64. Another important point to be borne in mind is, that in the higher positions the notes lie closer together than in the lower ones ; in fact the relative position of the fingers varies with each new “position.” Purity of intonation is therefore more difficult on the higher notes than on the lower, especially with rapid chromatic passages: It must be understood that we are not advising the student to avoid chromatic passages altogether, but only to exercise care and judgment in writing them.

65. Shakes, either with a major or minor second, are practicable throughout the whole compass of the violin, but it should be noticed that those with a minor second are difficult (and therefore very seldom employed) on the extreme high notes of the instrument, because of the semitones lying so close together on the string.

66. Almost any variety of bowing and phrasing is possible on the violin. It is most important for the student to remember that the bowing he wishes must in all cases be carefully indicated, because, if nothing is marked, violinists

* Another modification of tone is obtained by drawing the bow across the strings near the bridge—indicated by “ sul ponticello ” (Ital.), “ sur le chevalet ” (Fr.), or “ am Steg ” (Ger.), which gives a peculiar aerial quality to the tone. A good example of this effect will be found in the second of Edvard Grieg’s ‘ Zwei elegische Melodien fur Streichorchester, ’ Op, 34.

** These two chromatic scales are taken from F. David’s ‘ Violin Schule.'

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invariably detach every note. It will also be advisable in legato passages not to put more notes under one slur than it is possible to play with the same bow, because the change from an up to a down bow, or vice versa, necessarily causes a break in the continuity of the sound.*

67. We now give some examples, from the works of the great masters, of some of the most frequently used bowings.

Here is a very simple legato passage ; the bow is changed at the third and ninth bars in order, probably, to render the sforzando on the F and D easier and clearer.

This is an instructive example. Notice how Haydn, after taking two bars with one bow for the first six bars of the passage, indicates a separate bow for each of the notes marked sf, to secure a stronger accent. In our next quotation

two notes are played with each bow. The same can also be done against the accent, producing an effect of syncopation.

* Even experienced composers are sometimes careless in this matter. In the introduction of Auber's overture to ‘ Le Maçon ’ there is a holding G of 32 bars for the basses. It is, of course, quite impossible to play this with one bow; the effect of a sustained note would be best obtained here by the players not all changing the bow at the same time.

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68. Quite as common, and extremely effective, especially in forte passages, are the combinations of slurred and detached notes, as in the following:—

Observe that in the first bar Mendelssohn has marked the staccati to prevent any misunderstanding ; the pattern being once established, it was needless to mark the following bars fully. The chords of two and three notes in the third and fourth bars will be spoken of directly. In the following

will be seen another example of the alternation of legato and staccato for the violin. It is impossible to illustrate all the various bowings ; it will suffice to say that almost any phrasing is practicable, those that we have shown being among the most usual. Others will be seen in later examples.

69. In Ex. 7 of the last section are seen chords of two and three notes for the violin. It is clear that the sounding of two adjacent strings by the bow is quite easy ; but it by no means follows that every combination of two notes is practicable. We must now show what are the limitations of the instrument in this respect.

70. The easiest combinations of two notes are those in which one at least of the two is played on an open string. The only limitation is, that it shall be possible to play the other note on the next adjacent string.

In this example are shown some of the easiest passages of this kind. It will be seen that with the G string the lower note, and with the E string the upper, is always the open

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string, while the second and third strings may be either the upper or lower of the chord. The double notes shown at (e) are impossible with E as an open string, because the lower notes, being all below A, can only be played on the third or fourth string, and it is impossible for the bow to miss the intervening string. We shall see directly that the last three of these combinations can be obtained in another way.

71. It will be observed that the three unisons, D, A, and E, are possible by playing these notes at the same time as open and stopped notes (§58). This is sometimes indicated by the composer when he wishes a forcible effect. At the commencement of the Prelude to ‘ Die Walkure,’ Wagner has written the D on the second violins for 60 bars, expressly marking it ‘Immer auf doppelten Saiten ’ (‘always on doubled strings ’).

72. If both strings are stopped, instead of one being open, we get a much larger variety of combinations. All “ doublestops ” containing an interval of a major or minor third— provided the upper note is not below the open D of the third string—a perfect fourth or fifth, a major or minor sixth, a major, minor, or diminished seventh, are easy, provided they do not require any position higher than the third ; seconds and octaves are also tolerably easy, as likewise are augmented fourths and diminished fifths. All intervals larger than an octave should be avoided, unless the lower note is an open string. Except in very moderate tempo, successions of double notes should not be used in orchestral music, especially if they cannot all be played in the first position. If such an effect be required, it is better to divide the violins, of which there are always several in an orchestra, writing ‘divisi’ over the part, the first player at each desk taking the upper notes, and the second the lower.

73. The two passages next to be given, taken from Mozart’s Dance Music, will show the practical employment of the “ double string ” in the orchestra. The scores of both contain also parts for wind instruments, which it is not needful for our present purpose to quote.

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Contrary to the usual practice, there are no violas in this score. To obtain four-part harmony for the strings, Mozart therefore makes more frequent use of the double-stop. It should be noticed that all the double notes are perfectly easy, as they can be played in the first position.

74. Our next example shows double stopping in legato passages.

By referring to §58 the student will see that the fingering here is also quite easy.

75. In solo music freer use is made of double-stopping than would be advisable in writing for the orchestra. For instance, the following passage,

if intended for a number of violins, would be far too risky , it would be advisable in such a case to indicate ‘divisi' (§72).

76. Chords of three or four notes are also practicable on the violin under certain conditions. We saw just now that it was impossible to play together two notes both of which are below the open string, D. Similarly, three notes, all below the open A, and four below the open E, are unplayable for a similar reason. It would also be impossible to play such a chord as this—

The C and E must be played on the G and D strings in the first position; the upper note cannot be reached on the A string in the first position, and though it is quite easy to play it on the E string, the bow cannot leap over the A string. (Compare Ex. 9 (e) in §70.) The chord is therefore impossible, though it would become practicable by adding the C on the third space

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to be played on the A string. But even then, as we shall see directly (§80), it would not be advisable.

77. We now give another example of a chord which is impossible for a different reason.

Here all the notes can be played singly in the first position ; but, by referring to the table of fingering given in §58, the student will see that both the highest and lowest notes of the chord have to be played with the second finger. Now while it is easy for the same finger to stop two adjacent strings (as in the middle notes of this very chord,) it is impossible for it to stop two strings which are not next to one another. A little practical knowledge of the violin will greatly assist the beginner in this matter ; for the sake of those who have not such knowledge, we give a few general principles.

78. I. Those chords are most sonorous and effective, as well as easiest to play, which contain at least one open string, and two such are even preferable to one. The following will serve as examples of good and effective chords in which this condition is fulfilled.

The student will find that all these chords can be played either in the first or third position.

79. II. If a chord of three notes is written containing no open string, it is best for each note to be at an interval of a fifth or sixth (possibly also a seventh) from the nearest note to it, as in the following :—

Let the student notice that at * the note A cannot be taken on the open string, and ask himself the reason.

80. III. The only chords of four notes without an open string which it is expedient to write are those which are the root positions of common chords, with the fifth next above the root, such as

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Chords of three and four notes can also be taken in arpeggio, as in the well-known cadenza of Mendelssohn’s violin concerto.

81. IV. Chords of three or four notes are seldom effective, excepting in forte passages, and in these, they add less to the volume of tone than might be anticipated, as the bow has less force when drawn across three or four strings than when playing on a single one. It must also be remembered that, owing to the arched shape of the bridge, it is impossible to sustain more than two notes. The chords must therefore be played in arpeggio ; and if they are of longer value than crotchets, it is advisable (though not always done) to indicate whether two notes are to be sustained, or only one. Thus, not (See figure) but either [or] (See figure), according to the effect desired.

82. V. If a succession of chords, whether of three or four notes, be written, care must be taken to choose such as are easy, and sufficient rests allowed between them to give the player time to change his fingering. The two following examples from Beethoven illustrate this point.

It will be noticed that in Ex. 17 the rule given in §79 is carefully observed.

83. With the exception of such chords as those mentioned in §76, §77, there are very few passages which are absolutely impossible on the violin. Chief among these are such as in rapid tempo contain many large skips, requiring the bow to leap over an intermediate string ; eg. :—

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Such a passage as this could not be played in an allegro or presto movement, though it would be possible in an andante. Evidently a legato here would be absolutely out of the question. If, however, the lower of the two notes were an open string—

(See figure)

the passage would be quite easy, as here all the upper notes could be played on the A string in the fifth position. The student should avoid writing passages which require many sudden and considerable changes of position, such as from the first to the fifth or sixth, as the relative position of the fingers on the strings is quite different, and accurate intonation becomes very difficult. The same objection does not apply to a sudden return to the first position, for here the player cannot easily go wrong.

84. The repetition of the same note at almost any degree of rapidity is perfectly easy on the violin. If a tremolo (the quickest possible repetition of a note) is desired, this is indicated by the sign [or] (See figure) according to the rapidity of the movement ; it is often advisable also to add ‘ trem.' to avoid mistake. The tremolo is possible in any degree of force, from pp to ff, as in following passage :—

(The notation of the viola will be explained later—§107,.) The above extract illustrates a few practical points which the learner should bear in mind. Note first, that two instruments of the same kind (first and second violins,) have their staves

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connected by a brace ; the same thing is done with the violoncello and contrabasso, when, as here, they have separate staves. If wind instruments of the same kind, e.g. horns or trombones, occupy more than one staff, these should also be braced together. The reason is, that the score thus becomes easier to read, and the braces serve, so to speak, as signposts, and prevent the student from mistaking the staff on which any particular instrument is written, especially if, as is often the case in manuscript scores, the clefs and key-signatures are omitted at the beginning of the lines. Observe, further, that the marks of expression should be added, as here, for each instrument, and not put once for all at the top or bottom of the score ; otherwise the copyist is almost certain to omit many of them, when writing out the separate orchestral parts.

85. At the fifth bar of the above passage it will be seen that Schubert has written for the viola and basses Anatural, instead of the correct notation, Bbb. In extreme keys, such irregularities are by no means uncommon. The composer often writes that note which is the easier to read at first sight, regardless of the true notation. A similar example may be found in the slow movement of Beethoven’s piano concerto in E flat, where, in the seventh bar, he has written for the first violin

(See figure)

instead of

(See figure)

a procedure for which in this case there appears to be no sufficient justification.

86. A different kind of tremolo—the legato tremolo—is sometimes employed in modern music. This is produced by the rapid alternation of two notes of a chord on one instrument, while another plays the same notes, but in reversed order, so that both are heard continuously. The following passage, from the opening of the second act of ‘ Tristan und Isolde,’ will make this quite clear :— >

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Here, while the first violins are playing Db, the second are playing Bb, and vice versa; similarly, the violas and violoncellos are exchanging notes. The result is that all four notes are heard at once, but with quite a different effect from that produced in Ex. 18. In consequence of the rapid tempo (‘ sehr lebhaft ’ being the German equivalent of the Italian ‘ molto vivace') it is needless here to write ‘ trem.' ; the semiquavers are sufficient to produce the effect desired, which is frequently to be met with in Wagner’s scores, and was probably invented by him.

87. Instead of producing the sound from the strings by drawing the bow across them, it is possible also to play the violin by plucking the strings with the finger, as with the harp or guitar. This effect is called '‘pizzicato'—an Italian word meaning ‘ pinched ’—and is indicated in the score by the abbreviation pizz. The quality of the tone has then some resemblance to that of the harp, but the vibrations are less prolonged than on that instrument, and the sounds more detached. The effect should not be employed for the highest notes of the violin, being thin and unsatisfactory if written much above the staff. As violinists mostly play pizzicato with only one finger, very rapid passages are impossible in this way ; the student should not write anything quicker than quavers in an allegro. When the usual method of playing is to be resumed, this is shown by the words '‘coll' arco' (‘with the bow ’), or more usually only arco.

88. The following example of a pizzicato passage {see Ex. 20, next page), illustrates two points not yet noticed —the crossing of the second violin over the first, which is by no means infrequent, and the unison of the viola and violoncello, strengthening the bass of the three-part harmony.

89. Pizzicato harmony for all the strings is often employed to imitate the effect of a harp, as in the following passage,

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which is the opening symphony of Alfred’s solo, “I am a harper, sad and worn.” ’ .

90. Our next illustration shows the use of the pizzicato for a part only of the strings, the others playing with the bow—

We see here the melody played by a single violin, solo, while the other parts are played by all the strings ; we have further

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an example in the viola part of the 'divisi' spoken of in §107. Notice, too, the contrasted rhythms of the different parts.

91. There is yet another method of playing the violin and the other stringed instruments, which, though very seldom employed, and only for special effects, must be mentioned here. Instead of drawing the hair of the bow across the strings, they are struck with the wood, the bow being turned round; the resulting sound is very short, and rather weak. One of the earliest examples of this effect is seen in the accompaniment of the solo " Je vous attends dans l’ombre de la nuit,” in Boieldieu’s ' Le Calife de Bagdad.’ the first bars of the opening symphony:

This effect, which Wagner has used with chords in ' Die Meistersinger ’ * and ' Siegfried,’ is generally indicated, not (as above,) by " with the back of the bow,” but by the Italian " col legno ” (‘ with the wood ’). The occasions for its appropriate introduction are extremely rare.

92. The mute (Italian sordino, French sourdine, German Dampfer,) is a little clamp with notches, in shape resembling a comb, and generally made of brass, placed on the bridge, which it holds tightly, and thus prevents its imparting its vibrations to the soundboard. The result is not only a diminution in the power of the instrument, but a very marked change in the quality of tone, which becomes thin, veiled, and mysterious.** Its employment is indicated by the words ‘con sordini’ (or con sord.) and in German scores often by ‘mit Dampfer’; and it must be remembered that if the mutes are to be put on the instruments in the course of a movement, sufficient rests must be allowed for this to be done. About three or four bars in an allegro will be enough. To

* See within, Ex. 203.
** It should be noticed that the mutes produce less difference in the tone of the strings pizzicato than when the bow is employed.

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remove the mutes (marked ‘ senza sord.' or ‘ ohne Dampfer ’) a shorter rest—one to two bars—will suffice.

93. One of the earliest examples of the use of the mutes is the following :

Here the three upper parts are con sordini while the violoncellos are without them. More frequently they are applied to the whole of the strings except the double-basses, as in our next example :

Further illustrations of the employment of sordini will be found later in this volume.

94. Harmonics ( Fr. Sons harmoniques), are overtones produced by the vibration of a string in segments, instead of throughout its whole length. It is a well-known fact of acoustic science that such overtones are produced together with the fundamental tone (that is, the tone produced by the entire string), and that the quality of the sound depends upon the greater or less strength of these overtones, or “ upper partials,” in the compound tone.* When a string vibrates

* For a full explanation of this subject the student is referred to Chapter IV. of Sedley Taylor’s ‘ Sound and Music ’ (Macmillan & Co.).

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in halves, the sound produced is the octave above the fundamental tone; when in thirds, the twelfth above, and so on. The only upper partials which have any practical bearing on the subject we are now treating are the first six notes of the harmonic series. On the fourth string of the violin they are the following:—

The figures under each note show the number of segments into which the string divides to produce each of the notes here given. Thus the G above the staff results from the string vibrating in fourths, the B in fifths, and the upper D in sixths. The other strings of course produce overtones bearing the same relation to their fundamental tones as those on the G string.

95. We have just said that these overtones are produced with more or less strength' together with their fundamental tone. But it is possible to obtain them without the fundamental tone by lightly touching the string with the finger on one of the “ nodes,” that is, one of the points at which the string breaks up into segments. If it be thus touched exactly in the middle, it will vibrate in halves, if at one-third from either end, in thirds, and so on. When touched in the middle, or at one-third, one-fourth, &c., from the bridge— not from the nut—the pitch of the resulting note is the same as if pressed down, though the quality is different, as we shall see directly. But at any other points on the string, it makes a great difference whether it be pressed against the finger-board or merely lightly touched with the finger. For instance, if we press down the G string at a distance of one-third from the nut, we leave two-thirds free to vibrate, and as the ratio of 2 : 3 gives the perfect fifth, the notes produced will be the D below the staff—the fifth above open G. But if we only touch the string at the same point, it breaks up into thirds, each segment of the string producing the third upper- partial, that is, the D on the fourth line of the staff. If we touch the string at a point one-third from the bridge, instead of one-third from the nut, we get the same result.

96. After the explanation just given of the production of the third upper-partial, it will be sufficient to say that the fourth, fifth and sixth can be similarly obtained by touching the strings on the point which, if pressed down, would give respectively the perfect fourth, major third, and minor third above the open string. The student who understands the last paragraph will easily verify this for himself.

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97. In consequence of their peculiarly clear, almost flutelike quality of tone, these harmonics are called in Germany “ Flageolet-tone,” and their employment is often indicated in German scores merely by the word ‘ Flageolet.’ More than one method is in vogue for the notation of harmonics. Some composers merely put an o over the note to be sounded, leaving the player to think how he is to produce it. In the case of the octave of the open strings this indication is quite sufficient, and these notes, accordingly, are generally written thus :—

Here there is no difficulty, as the finger touches the same place on the strings as it would were the notes pressed. But with the remaining harmonics, it is better to indicate the point at which the string is to be touched. This is usually done by writing a black head for the open string, and a diamond-shaped head for the note to be touched, while the actual sound heard is written as a small note above. The following table

gives all the harmonics that can be thus obtained. The higher ones, especially on the E and A strings, are so difficult to produce that they are rarely, if ever used in orchestral music ; the only ones that are at all frequently to be found are the four octaves of the open strings.*

98. Raff, in the Scherzo of his third symphony (‘ Im Walde ’) has employed a somewhat different notation for the harmonics. He does not mark the open string, but indicates the fact that the notes are to be played as harmonics by putting a diamond-shaped head for the sound to be heard, while the ordinary minim heads show where the strings are to be touched.

* The following table may be of assistance to the student in remembering these harmonics:—

A touched 8ve sounds its unison.
“ “ perfect 5th , 8v.e
“ “ perfect 4th, 12th
“ “ major 3rd, 15h
minor 3rd…. (major 3rd above the double 8ve)

These intervals are in all cases reckoned from the note touched—not from the open string.

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If the student has clearly understood our previous explanations, he will see by referring to Ex. 26 that the first two of these harmonics are obtained on the A string and the third and fourth on the E string.

99. In addition to the harmonics already described another variety, known as “ artificial harmonics,” is not infrequently met with in violin solos, though they are, because of their greater difficulty, seldom used in orchestral music. The law according to which these are formed is exactly the same as that regulating the other (natural) harmonics. Just as the latter are obtained by touching one of the nodes of the whole string, the artificial harmonics are made by touching one of the nodes of the shortened string. For this purpose we employ two fingers of the left hand. The first finger presses the string firmly down in the usual way. while one of the other fingers (generally the fourth) touches the string higher up.' An example will make this perfectly clear.

10. By referring to the foot-note to §97, it will be seen that a touched fourth gives its twelfth, and a touched major third gives its double octave. Now suppose on the G string the A is pressed down with the first finger (1st position), the portion of the string between the finger and the nut cannot vibrate—in other words, the string is shortened (§58). Now if the D (the perfect fourth above A) is touched by the fourth finger the whole vibrating part of the string will break up into fourths, and the A on the first leger line above the staff will be sounded. If C# be touched instead, with the third finger, the C# two octaves above will be heard. By far the oftenest used of these artificial harmonics are those with the touched fourth, as being the easiest to produce. A moment’s thought will show the student that it is possible in this way to play an entire scale in harmonics, thus :—

The notation mostly used for these artificial harmonics is that described in §97, and shown in the above example. Sometimes, however, the player is left to find out for himself how the notes are to be produced, as in the passage for four solo violins at the beginning of the prelude to ‘ Lohengrin ’:—

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Here Wagner merely writes over the parts ‘ Durch Flageolet hervorzubringen ’ (‘ to produce by harmonics ’). Let the student think for himself how these are to be obtained ; we will merely say for his guidance that only one of the four is necessarily an artificial harmonic.

101. In modern violin solos entire passages are sometimes written to be played as harmonics. A very good example is to be seen in the slow movement of Saint-Saens’ violin concerto in B minor.

* The part of the clarinet sounds one tone lower than written. See Chap. VIII., §295.

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A particularly charming effect is obtained here by the doubling of the arpeggios for the clarinet by the crystalline tones of the violin harmonics two octaves higher. We quote only the commencement of the passage, which is twelve bars in length. It affords an excellent illustration of contrasts of tone colour, a subject which we shall treat in a later part of this work. It will be seen that here, as in Ex. 29, no indication is given as to the manner of obtaining the harmonics. It should be added that such a passage would be quite impracticable on the orchestra, being too difficult for any but very finished artists.

102. It was said in the last chapter (§25.) that the violins in the orchestra were mostly divided into two parts. This division is adopted in an enormous majority of cases. Sometimes, however, a larger number of parts is employed. This is more common in modern than in older music, though in the scores of Handel we not infrequently meet with three, and occasionally (as in the overture to ‘ Athalia ’) even with four violin parts. Neither Haydn, Mozart, nor Beethoven ever (so far as we are aware) writes more than two violin parts for the orchestra, though Haydn, as we shall see presently, sometimes writes parts for solo strings in addition to> the ordinary parts for the tutti. An excellent example of the division of the violins into four parts—probably also

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the earliest in modern music—is seen in Weber’s overture to ‘ Euryanthe ’ :—

This passage is marked in the score to be played by eight violins, that is, by two to each part. Let the student notice the effect of the sordini, and also the careful way in which the “ double-stops ” are written so as to offer no difficulty to the performer.

103. A different kind of division is that referred to above, in which there are independent parts for solo strings, as in the following very effective combination by Haydn :—

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Though there is really only four-part harmony here, the passage is interesting as showing the combination of the arco of the solo strings with the pizzicato of the others. The employment of two violins and one violoncello as solo instruments seems to be a survival of the ‘ Concerto Grosso ’ of Handel and Corelli, in which the same combination plays an important part.

104. At the fifth bar of the first solo violin will be seen a sign which we have not yet met with, and which is now seldom if ever used. The waved line under the notes indicates the vibrato—a slight variation in the pitch of the note, pro-

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duced by making the finger tremble upon the string. When used with moderation it is very effective in expressive melodies; but (as with the tremolo of vocalists,) its too frequent employment becomes a most objectionable mannerism, not to say nuisance. It is sometimes called the “ close shake,” and its employment is mostly left to the discretion of the player.

105. Besides the comparatively common division of the first and second violins into two parts each, more elaborate subdivisions are sometimes found in modern scores, especially in the later works of Wagner. In the final scene of ‘ Das Rheingold’ (p. 287 of the full score,) there are twelve violin parts, besides six for violas and four for violoncellos, making 22 string parts in all. We have not room to quote the passage, which consists only of arpeggios of the common chord, crossing and interlacing in all positions. Elaboration of this kind greatly increases the difficulty of performance, and we 'strongly advise the student to abstain from such complexities; the occasions are, in fact, rare when it is expedient to divide the violins at all. It must not be forgotten that doing so weakens the tone of each part, and may easily destroy the balance of the orchestra unless very judiciously managed.

106. Though there is comparatively little difference, as regards facility of execution, in the different keys for the violin, it must be remembered that some keys are much more sonorous and brilliant than others. The best are those which allow the use of open strings. For this reason D flat, though not difficult, is much less bright in its effect than D natural. In the latter key, the open strings, when not played upon, will by “sympathetic resonance”* sound as harmonics many of the notes played upon the other strings, thus reinforcing and giving brilliancy to the tone of the instrument. This is why sharp keys are on the violin in general brighter than flat keys ; we speak, of course, of those with more than two or three sharps or flats.

THE VIOLA.

107. The Viola (Fr. Alto, Ger, Bratsche**) may be regarded as the alto of the violin, bearing to it approximately the same relation which the contralto voice does to the soprano. As the student will have discovered from the examples already given, music for the viola is written in the alto clef ; but, to avoid the use of too many leger lines, the G clef is employed for its upper notes.

* See Sedley Taylor’s ‘ Sound and Music,’ Chap. III.

+ This word is a corruption of the Italian Braccio, the arm. The instrument was formerly called ‘Viola da Braccio ’ (i.e. a viol held on the arm), as distinguished from ‘ Viola da Gamba ’ (a viol held between the legs), the predecessor of the modern violoncello.

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108. The four strings of the viola are tuned a perfect fifth lower than those of the violin—

(See figure)

All that was said as to the fingering of the violin (§58, §59,) applies equally to the viola ; but the positions higher than the fifth are hardly ever employed in orchestral music, as the notes above

(See figure)

are far more effective, as well as easier, on the violin. The same varieties of bowing are also possible as on that instrument, and the tremolo, pizzicato, and sordini are used in exactly the same way. With regard to double-stops and chords, all that are effective and practicable for the violin are equally good for the viola, if transposed a fifth lower. Harmonics, whether natural or artificial, can also be produced exactly in the same way as on the violin, though, as will be seen directly, with less freedom ; but, excepting the octaves of the four open strings, (See figure) they are seldom employed in orchestral music. An example of their use may, however, be seen in the second act of Wagner’s ‘ Siegfried ’ (p. 269 of the full score).

109. There is considerable difference between the quality of tone of the violin and viola—a difference easily to be understood, if the relative sizes of the two instruments be taken into account. As the compass of the viola is a fifth lower than that of the violin, it would, if constructed in the same proportions, have strings half as long again as the smaller instrument. As a matter of fact, though the size of individual violas varies slightly, the strings are on an average not more than about one-tenth longer than those of the violin, and, in order to deepen their tone sufficiently, they are made thicker in proportion to their length—exactly as is done with the bass strings of a pianoforte. This alteration in the relation of thickness to length materially modifies the tone of the viola, which, while rich and penetrating, is wanting in the brilliancy of the violin, especially on the upper strings. It is most probably for the same reason that the harmonics are less free in their produc-

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tion on the viola, and therefore more sparingly used, and also that very rapid passages are more difficult and less effective than on the violin.

110. The most frequent use of the viola is as the third part of the “ quartett” (§25), that is, below the second violins, and above the bass. It should be mentioned here that it is much more common for the violas to cross above the second violins than for the middle parts (alto and tenor,) to cross in vocal writing. The student will find an instance of this in Ex. 24. But the viola is not always relegated to such a subordinate position. Owing to its expressive quality of tone, it is occasionally entrusted with the leading part of the quartett. Mendelssohn has done this with great effect in the air “ Lord God of Abraham ” in ‘ Elijah,’ in which the violas are written above the violins almost throughout. We give a short extract:—

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(We have omitted a few notes for the clarinets in the third and fourth bars.) Of the division of the violoncello and double-bass in the last bar we shall speak in the next chapter.

111. Owing to the telling and penetrating quality of tone of the violas, it is not necessary that they should be as numerous in the orchestra as either the first or second violins. They are usually about one-third in number of the whole mass of violins, so that a well-balanced orchestra that contained eight first and eight second violins should have five or six violas. Even with this smaller number, we often find them divided, either throughout a whole movement, or for a single passage, into firsts and seconds. An instructive example of this is the following' :—

(A few holding notes for the wind have been omitted.) Here the passage given first by the violins is repeated at the

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same pitch by the divided violas. In the fifth and sixth bars the violas double the violins in the octave above—a very unusual disposition of parts. Notice also the beautiful effect of the contrasted bowings—two groups of semiquavers legato followed by one staccato.

112. Our next example of a melody given to the violas is of a different kind.

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In this charming passage the divided violas are accompanied by the other strings pizzicato, the violins being in unison except at the first note in the tenth bar. Note that the colouring would have been quite different had the two viola parts been given to the violins and the pizzicato to the violas. Observe also the notation of the violas in bars 8 to 10. The two lower notes having the same stem shows that it is the second violas (not the firsts,) which have the doublestops, the upper note being an open string throughout.

113. Sometimes for a quiet effect the basses of the orchestra are silent, the lowest part of the harmony being given to the violas, as at the beginning of Agatha’s great scena in ‘ Der Freischutz,’. known in England as “ Softly sighs.” One of the earliest, as well as one of the most beautiful examples of this will be found in Handel’s air “ Hide me from day’s garish eye,” of which we give the first eight bars.

Excepting for one short interlude of four bars, the basses are silent (the harmony being in three parts only,) until the fiftieth bar, when they enter with beautiful effect at the words “Then, as I wake, sweet music breathe.” The whole song is a charming specimen of simple and delicate orchestration.

114. Three-part harmony for the strings — the violas

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playing in unison (or octaves,) with the basses—is frequently found in the older scores, such as those of Gluck and Cimarosa. It may also be seen in the earlier works of Haydn and Mozart, but it is very seldom met with in more modern music (see Exs. 20 and 32 above.)

115. When a sombre tone is required, the violins are sometimes suppressed altogether, and their place is taken by violas. In his opera ‘ Uthal,’ Méhul has done this throughout, but the effect soon becomes monotonous. But incidentally, and even for entire single movements, the procedure may be adopted with advantage. Familiar examples are Sarastro’s air “ O Isis und Osiris ” in the second act of ‘Die Zauberflote,’ and the movement in 3/2 time in the finale of Beethoven’s ninth symphony. We give a less known, but not less beautiful or effective passage by Schubert.

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The student must not forget in this and the preceding quotations that the part of the double-bass sounds an octave lower than it appears on paper.

116. In orchestral music the viola is but seldom used as a solo instrument. Examples of its employment in this way may be seen in Aennchen’s song in the third act of ‘Der Freischutz,’ and in Berlioz’s ‘ Harold ’ symphony, which latter contains an important part for solo viola throughout. Mozart has written a double concerto for violin and viola. The key of the work is E flat, and it is interesting to notice that, to increase the brilliancy of the viola, Mozart has directed that the strings are to be tuned a semitone up, and has written the part in D, with the signature of two sharps. If the student will remember what was said in §106, he will see that this change makes the viola part much brighter, and better able to hold its own against the naturally superior brilliancy of the violin.

117. We mentioned in §109 that the viola was constructed on different proportions from the violin. With a view to improve the tone, a German musician, Hermann Ritter, invented about twenty years ago a new kind of viola, to which he gave the name of the Viola. Alta. In this instrument the proportions are the same as on the violin, but it is half as large again. It is obvious that this increases correspondingly the distances between the notes on the string, and requires a so much greater stretch in the player’s fingers that performers with small hands are altogether unable to manage the instrument. It is probably for this reason chiefly that it has not yet found much acceptance, for the quality of its tone is much richer and fuller than that of the ordinary viola.

118. The Viola d’Amore is an instrument which is now almost obsolete, and which is only mentioned here because Meyerbeer, in the first act of ‘ Les Huguenots,’ has written an important solo for it. It had seven catgut strings tuned in thirds and fourths, so as to give the chord of D major:—

Beneath the finger-board, and passing under the bridge, were seven other strings, of wire, called “sympathetic strings,” because they were tuned in unison with the catgut strings, and vibrated with them in “sympathetic resonance ”. (§106). This gave a peculiarly sweet and mysterious quality to the tone. The solo part in ‘ Les Huguenots ’ mentioned above is now generally played on the ordinary viola.

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CHAPTER IV

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS : THE VIOLONCELLO AND CONTRABASS

119. The Violoncello (Fr. Violoncelle), the name of which is often abbreviated into 'Cello’ (plural ‘ Celli ’), is by no means the least important of the group of stringed instruments with which we are now dealing [see image]. Not only does it in most places sustain the bass of the harmony, in which case it is generally doubled in the lower octave by the double-bass, but it is very often used as a melodic instrument, especially by modern composers, and (as will be seen in some of the examples to be given later,) is sometimes written above all the other strings.

120. The violoncello has four strings, tuned an octave below those of the viola, and music for it, except in the upper part of its compass is written in the F clef.

As the instrument has a very extensive compass upwards, the tenor clef [see image], and even the G clef [see image], are used for its higher notes. The modern practice is to employ mostly the tenor clef, and to restrict the use of the G clef to extremely high passages. But the student should be told that formerly it was the custom to write the G and F clefs only, and in that case the notes for the former were written an octave higher

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than they really sound. The following example will make this clear :—

Here the leap of a minor ninth at the beginning of the second bar would be an obvious absurdity. The real effect is,

and a modern composer would write it in this way, unless he preferred to use the G clef, in which case he would write the notes an octave lower than they appear in Onslow’s score.

121. Owing to the much greater length of the strings, the fingering of the violoncello differs materially from that of the violin and viola ; the distance between one finger and the next, in the natural position of the hand, is not, except in the higher “shifts,” more than a semitone, instead of a tone. We give the fingering for the scale of C major in the first position.

In general the interval of a tone is taken, as here, between the first and third, or second and fourth fingers ; but it is in some cases needful to modify this fingering, as, for instance, with the scale of D major :—

122. Chromatic scales are easier on the violoncello than

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on the violin, because there is a different finger for each semitone. The fingering is in all cases very simple :—

It will be seen that two positions are used on each string.

123. As with the violin and viola, the compass of the violoncello can be considerably extended upwards by “shifting” §59Seven positions are in use, each being (as on the violin) one note higher than the preceding. In the seventh position the note [C5. See image] is reached on the first string.

But a higher compass still is obtainable with what are called the “ thumb positions,” in which the thumb of the left hand is placed on the string, the fingers being thus enabled to reach higher notes than in the ordinary positions. As we are not writing a series of instruction books for orchestral instruments, we cannot go into all the details of the -fingering, for which the student should refer to some violoncello tutor ; we confine ourselves to a few general principles.

124. Double notes and chords are less frequently written for the violoncello than for the smaller stringed instruments. If one or two of the notes are open strings, such chords will in general be easy. If there are no open strings, the best intervals to write are fifths, sixths, and minor (not major) sevenths, and, of combinations of three notes, only common chords containing intervals of a fifth and sixth. But by far the most effective and easiest chords are such as contain open strings; eg.

In Ex. 23 of the last chapter will be seen the double string for the violoncello. The composer might have indicated his intentions more clearly ; the double-bass, as we shall see later in this chapter, will here play only the lower note, D, while the violoncello plays on the two open strings.

125. Such chords as those shown in our last example can also be effectively employed in arpeggio, as in the great duet in the second act of ‘ Euryanthe,’ of which we quote the first four bars.

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Another good instance of the employment of arpeggios for the violoncello will be seen in the trio of the minuetto of Beethoven’s eighth symphony.

126. All that was said in the last chapter as to bowing.

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and phrasing, the tremolo, pizzicato, and sordini on the violin holds good also of the violoncello. The pizzicato is especially effective on the latter instrument, as the longer strings have more resonance when twitched with the finger than those of the violin. This greater length of string also renders the pizzicato on the higher notes more effective than is the case with the violin (§87).

127. An interesting and instructive example of the pizzicato for the violoncello is the following : —

The upper staff of this score is played both by the flute and piccolo. The student will learn later (§216) that the latter instrument sounds an octave higher than written. The ‘ Timpani ’ on the lowest staff are the kettle-drums (§37) ; these give the notes as written, while the double-basses sound them an octave lower. We see here the violoncelli pizzicato.

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while the double-basses continue to play with the bow ; we must note also the successive employment of the three clefs (§120), the notes in the G clef being written at their real pitch. Observe, too, that the pizzicato is rendered more prominent by doubling the violoncello by the viola, and that as the passage ascends, and these instruments reach their higher register, where the tone is thinner, the second violin is added, to strengthen the middle part.

128. Harmonics are both practicable and effective on the violoncello, and are produced (whether natural or artificial) in precisely the same way as on the violin. Their employment, excepting in solos, is extremely rare, and need not detain us now.

129. The primary function of the violoncello in the orchestra is, as already said (§119), to form the bass of the stringed instruments. It is used in this way in the large majority of the passages we have already quoted, and is then generally doubled by the contrabasso in the lower octave. Often, however, in quiet passages especially, the bass of the harmony is given to the celli alone. We have seen instances of this in Exs. 24, 25, and refer students to a very familiar and excellent illustration of the same point in the beginning of the adagio of Beethoven’s ninth symphony. Sometimes the bass is given to the double-basses alone, while the celli give an additional middle part to the harmony, as in the last bars of Ex. 18. At other times the violoncello and viola, so to speak, exchange places, the former taking the tenor part of the harmony, while the latter doubles the contrabasso. When this is done, it will generally be to bring into prominence some expressive counterpoint, as in the following passage :—

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Here the melody allotted to the cello in its upper register would be infinitely less effective on the lower strings of the viola. Observe also that here the viola doubles the contrabasso in the unison, instead of, as usual, in the upper octave.

130. As a melodic instrument, the violoncello is one of the most important in the orchestra. There is a beautiful and expressive quality in its upper register that nothing else can replace. Its lower notes can also be very effectively employed for melodies of a sombre character, as, for instance, in the long solo for the celli, unaccompanied save by a pianissimo roll on the kettle-drum, at the commencement of the second act of ‘ Lohengrin.’ But it is more frequently used in the middle or upper part of the orchestra. We give some characteristic examples.

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131. In this beautiful passage the melody of the celli is doubled, mostly in the third below, by the violas, while the violins give broken chords above, and an effective bass is supplied by the pulsations of the double-bass pizzicato. Notice that the effect of the passage would be entirely ruined if the viola and cello exchanged parts, because the latter is much more powerful than the former.

132. In our next example

we see a very light accompaniment to the melody. The violas here double the contrabassi in the octave, and, on the note A, in the double octave, as the lower A is not on the viola. The chords printed in small notes on the lowest staff

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and marked Fagotti,’ are parts for bassoons. We have already said (§42, note) that in modern French scores four bassoons were sometimes used ; here we see three.

133. The passage next to be given is instructive.

Here the composer wants a very quiet bass. would be too heavy, and the viola does not go low enough • he therefore divides the celli into firsts and seconds, the former having the melody in the upper part, while the latter takes the bass. As only half the celli have the melody, the accompaniment is naturally kept very light.

134. When used as a melodic instrument, the violoncello is sometimes doubled in the unison by other instruments. Of these the viola is most frequently used, as in the familiar passages of the Andante of Beethoven’s Symphony in C minor, which are too well known to need quotation. Another

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example of the same combination will be seen in the opening of Dvorak’s second symphony. Sometimes, as we shall see in a later chapter, the celli are doubled by the bassoons. Our next example shows a rarer combination—the unison of the celli and the first violins

We give only the string parts. To complete the score, two bassoons double the second violin and viola (of course with holding notes), and two horns in unison, also with holding notes, play the octave above the double-bass. The peculiar effect here results from the combination of the upper register of the cello with the lower register of the first violins, which would probably play the whole passage on the G string.

135. In the following extract from Schubert’s great symphony in C,

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is seen in the first two bars an instance of the doubling of the celli by the violas, spoken of in the last paragraph, as also of the division of both. In the third bar the violas are written below the celli (Compare Ex. 43). The pizzicato of the other strings allows the middle harmonies to be heard with special clearness.

136. We sometimes find the violoncellos divided into more than two parts. One of the first composers to do this was Cherubini. In the first act of his ‘ Faniska,’ the opening of the soprano scena is accompanied by three violoncellos. A more curious example is to be seen in the introduction of his ‘ Chant sur la mort de Joseph Haydn,’ where, to obtain a sombre and funereal tone-colour, he divides the celli into four parts, all muted :—

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137. Every one is familiar with the opening of Rossini’s overture to ‘ Guillaume Tell,’ which is scored for five solo violoncellos. Wagner has also divided his celli into five parts in the first act of ‘ Die Walkure.’ As a contrast to our last example, we give a beautiful passage from ‘ Siegfried,’ in which there are four parts for celli:—

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As the violas are divided here, Wagner, with careful regard for the balance of tone in the chords, has directed that only- half the second violins are to play. The division of the double-bass is, as will be seen later, somewhat unusual.

138. A single violoncello is sometimes employed in the orchestra, especially in vocal music. In this case, the other celli mostly play with the basses. A well-known example will be seen in the air “Be thou faithful unto death,” in Mendelssohn’s ‘ St. Paul.’ as our illustration.

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The notation of the horns will be fully explained in a later chapter. Here they simply sound the dominant of the key. Our extract is quoted from Breitkopf and Hartel’s complete edition of Beethoven’s works ; in the original edition of the oratorio, published early in the present century, the cello solo is printed, according to the notation referred to in §120, thus :—

139. Schumann, in the slow movement of his pianoforte quartett, has at the end, for the sake of a long tonic pedal, directed the violoncello to tune the C string down to B flat, and he sustains the octave [see image] for thirteen bars. This is quite an exceptional case, and is not recommended for imitation.

THE DOUBLE-BASS (CONTRABASSO).

140. The Orchestra Volume I - Plucked Instruments

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CHAPTER V

THE HARP, GUITAR, AND MANDOLINE

156. In the present chapter we deal with those stringed instruments which belong to the second group (§ 26). Though not generally reckoned among the "strings," their appropriate place in this book is here. The only one which will detain us long is.

THE HARP.

157. The modern Harp (Fr. Harpe, Ital. Arpa, Ger. Harfe,) has forty-six strings, which are tuned to the diatonic scale of, C flat major, and extend from [see figure] a compass of six and a half octaves. Music for the harp is written, as for the piano, on two staves, in the G and F clefs. As the natural scale of the instrument is C flat, every note will of course be a flat.

158. If other notes than those of the scale of C flat major are required on the harp, these are obtained by the ingenious mechanism known as the "double action," which was invented by Sebastian Erard, and brought to perfection by him early in the present century. We have not space to describe this apparatus fully; it must suffice to say that by means of seven pedals fixed in the pedestal of the harp, the player is able to raise the pitch of any degree of the scale either a semitone or a tone. If a pedal be pressed half-way down, the note is raised a semitone, if pressed fully down, a tone. At one side of the grooves in which the pedals work are two notches, into which they can be hitched when required.

159. It must be understood that each pedal acts on all the octaves of the same note,—that one pedal will raise every Cb to C natural or C#, another will raise every Db to D natural or D#, and so on with all the seven. But it is no more possible to lower the pitch of the string by means of the pedals than it is to obtain a lower note than the open string by stopping the string of a violin.

160.The student will now be able to understand why the natural scale of the harp should be Cb. By pressing the F pedal half-way down, we get the scale of G flat (F natural instead of Fb);

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160. Similarly we can raise all the other flats to naturals, until, if all the pedals be pressed half-way down, we have the scale of C natural. If we now put the F pedal fully down, we have the scale of G, if the F and C pedals, the scale of D, and so on. It is thus possible by means of the pedals to put the harp into any key that may be required. A moment's thought will show the student that the minor diatonic scales can be similarly obtained.

161. The fingering of the harp being the same in all keys, and therefore all being equally easy, it might be sup posed that it would be a matter of indifference in what key a harp part was written. This is not the case ; the less the strings are shortened, the better their sonority. For this reason, if the harp be employed in a movement con taining many sharps in the signature, it is better to write the part,’ if possible, in the enharmonic key. The author has done this for a movement in the key of F sharp major in his cantata 'Alfred':—.

(To save space, the wind parts are condensed on two staves, and the actual sounds are given. The student will learn later that both the clarinets and the horns would be written quite differently in the score.) Here the harp part would have been just as easy to play had it been written in F# ; but in that case all the strings except the B would have been raised a tone ; whereas by taking the enharmonic key, G , only one pedal (the F,) has to be put half down. The sonority of the harp is therefore much greater. Composers sometimes disregard this point. M. Gevaert, in his splendid book on "Instrumentation," quotes a long harp passage, from the fifth act of Gounod's 'Faust,' in the key of B major, and points out that it would have been not only more effective, but very much easier had Gounod written it in C flat.

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162. From what has been said about the mechanism of the harp, it will be seen that neither double-sharps nor double flats are possible on it. They are sometimes written in thoughtlessness, especially by Wagner, who wrote worse for the harp than any other great composer. In such cases the performer has to play the enharmonic of the note—e.g., for Bbb he will play A natural, for F [double sharp] he will substitute G natural, and so on.

163. It must never be forgotten in writing for the harp, that it is essentially a diatonic instrument. Modulations to nearly related keys are easy ; but it must be remembered that, as each foot can only move one pedal at a time, and that every accidental requires the use of a separate pedal, sudden changes to a very remote key—such as from C to B natural or to Db—will be difficult, and may even be impossible. If such a change be required, a short rest should be given to the harp, to allow the player sufficient time to change his pedals.

164. To show the student how not to write for the harp, we quote an almost impossible passage from the final scene of 'Die Walkure.'

Here almost every group of semiquavers requires the changing of two, sometimes of three pedals. The entire passage is absolutely antagonistic to the nature of the instrument.*

165. Provided that chromatic passages be avoided, most passages that would be suitable for the piano will also be satisfactory on the harp, excepting rapid repeated notes and shakes, which, though mostly possible, are ineffective. But

* One of the best harpists in London, the late Mr. Ernest Lockwood, once informed the author that he had to practise this passage an hour a day for some weeks, before he was able to play it at one of the Richter concerts.

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there are a few general principles which the student will do well to bear in mind. It may be said that the most effective passages for the harp are chords, either sounded together, or in arpeggio., But, as the little finger is never used in harp playing, no chord for either hand should contain more than four notes. Moreover, if there be only one harp part, the two hands should not be too widely separated, or the effect will be thin. Neither should both hands play long in the lower part of the instrument, as this necessitates a constrained position for the performer, which soon becomes fatiguing.

166. Arpeggio passages (which, it may be remarked in passing, derive their name from this instrument,) are even . more common, and perhaps more effective than the full chords just spoken of. They are sometimes given to one hand alone, and should then lie within the compass of an octave ; but they are very often divided between the two hands. In this case the method of dividing them is sometimes indicated by. the composer, but it is more frequently left to the player. For the student, unless he be himselfa harp player, the latter will be the better plan.

167. An excellent example of a simple arpeggio for the harp as an accompaniment to the voice is the following :—

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(To save space, the two violin parts are written on one staff.) The quiet harmonies for the muted strings, with the occasional holding notes for the horns, allow the harp passage to be heard with great distinctness. Observe also how the pizzicato basses reinforce the lowest notes of the harp, which they double in the lower octaves.

168.In the passage just quoted the division of the arpeggios is indicated ; in the following it is left to the player :—

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169.In our next illustration is seen the beautiful and uncommon combination of the harp with three solo instruments:—the violin, violoncello, and horn.

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The distribution of the chords in the first bar exemplifies what was said in §165, and the notation in the third bar shows the division of the arpeggio between the two hands.

170. The combination of the harp with the strings pizzicato is not infrequent, and very effective, as in the following :—

Other excellent examples of the same combination may be seen in Mendelssohn's overture to 'Athalia,' and in the song of the Rhapsodes in Bruch's 'Odysseus.'

171. A very beautiful effect is obtainable by the use of the harmonics of the harp. These have a peculiarly clear tone, somewhat resembling in quality the harmonics of the strings. The only note of the series employed on the harp is No. 2, giving the octave of the note sounded by the whole string. It is produced by touching the string exactly in the middle with

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the fleshy ball of the palm of the hand, and twitching the string with the thumb or one of the first two fingers. It is not equally good in all parts of the compass, and is seldom written for notes beyond the limits [see figure]

172. The notation of the harmonics of the harp differs from that used for other stringed instruments. The general plan is to write, not the actual sound to be produced, but the string to be touched, putting o over it. The note sounded is thus always an octave higher than that shown in the score. Thus, the following passage, taken from Boieldieu's 'La Dame Blanche '—which, it should be said, is the earliest instance of the employment of the harmonics of the harp—[see figure]sounds in performance thus :—[see figure]

173.A charming example of these harmonics is seen in the popular Ballet of Sylphs in Berlioz's 'Faust.' We quote the concluding bars in which the harmonics of the two harps, unaccompanied except by the holding D of the basses, are given as softly as possible.

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174. Some modern composers have obtained a striking effect on the harp by means of what are called synonyms or homophones, which we shall now explain. It was said in §162 that if double-sharps or double-flats were written for the harp, it was necessary to play their enharmonics. In some cases two notes which are enharmonics of one another can be sounded on two adjacent strings of the harp. The following table will show in what cases this is possible :—

Here it will be seen that nine out of the twelve semitones in the octave have practicable enharmonic synonyms. The three notes, D natural, G natural, and A natural, are without them, because, as the nearest natural note on each side of them is at a distance of a tone, their enharmonics must be either double-sharps or double-flats.

175. Now if, by means of the pedals, we tune the harp thus :—[see figure] the student will see that, instead of a diatonic scale, we have now in each case a chord of the diminished seventh, with three of the four notes doubled ; it is obviously impossible to double all, as the harp has only seven strings in the octave. The three chords shown above are—[see figure] By the glissando that is, by sliding one finger along the strings, an arpeggio of the chord of the diminished seventh can be obtained on the harp without the slightest difficulty, with any degree of force from pp to ff, and at almost any rate of speed that may be desired. As an illustration, we give part of the cadenza for the harp in the first movement of Liszt's 'Dante' symphony :—

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This passage is continued upwards to the upper D again, and then, after a pause, repeated diminuendo and pianissimo. The effect is evidently [see figure] and the passage would be more frequently written in this way, the enharmonic changes being left to the player.

176. By the older composers the harp was seldom employed. We occasionally find it in the works of Handel—an example will be seen later in this chapter ; but we know of no instance of its use by Haydn. It is found only once in the complete works of Mozart—in the concerto for flute and harp which he was commissioned to write for the Duc de Guines, and only twice in Beethoven—in the 'Prometheus' and in 'Leonora Prohaska.' Weber also never, so far as we are aware, employed it. But in modern, and more especially in operatic scores, it plays a very important part. Gounod, Meyerbeer, Berlioz, and Wagner make very free use of it, though the last-named composer, as we have already seen, sometimes (not always) writes most injudiciously for it.

177.In modern large orchestras two, or even more, harps are not infrequently employed. In such cases the composer sometimes directs that the harp part shall be doubled ; Brahms has done this in his 'Deutsches Requiem.' But the doubling of a harp part in unison by two or more instruments is less

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effective, and adds less to the power, than when a separate part is written for each. The earliest instance known to us of this procedure is found in Schubert's 'Zauberharfe;' unfortunately the passage would require more space for its quotation than we can spare.

178. A very curious and interesting combination is the following :—

Here the voice is accompanied by very full chords for two harps (each part being doubled,) and kettle-drums, of which there are three. We shall see later that the more usual number is two.

179. Our next example shows a simpler, but not less

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effective passage for two harps accompanying the divided violoncellos :—

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Let the student notice the way in which the harmonies are distributed between the two harps. The only point needing special remark is at the tenth bar, where Eb is written for the first harp and D# for the second, the reason probably being that the context makes the passages easier to play with the notation chosen than if either Eb or D# had been written for both instruments.

180. In the final scene of 'Das Rheingold' Wagner has written separate parts for six harps. The passages consist entirely of arpeggios, crossing and interlacing in various positions, which give a peculiar shimmer (if the expression may be allowed,) to the orchestration, at the point where the rainbow bridge is seen by which the Gods pass over to Walhalla. Such an effect is, of course, quite exceptional, and the student should confine himself to one harp part, or he will throw difficulties in the way of a performance of his music.