Forsyth | Orchestration
*Page under construction
Note from the TOR Editor
Updated September, 2022: This in-process page currently just contains the Introduction and the Cello chapter.
ORCHESTRATION
BY
CECIL FORSYTH
M.A. Edin.
SECOND EDITION
NEW YORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1949
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS.
Orchestral instruments are, as a rule, grouped together under the four headings “Percussion,” “Brass,” “Wood,” and “Strings.” This rough-and-ready arrangement is perhaps quite as good as any other for use in a hook mainly devoted to the artistic and historical aspects of Instrumentation. It is, however, by no means a scientific classification.
In the first place, the four groups are not mutually exclusive. A Stringed Instrument, such as the Dulcimer or the Pianoforte, in which the sound is produced by means of percussion, can be classed in either the first or the last group. In the next place, certain Brass Instruments have all the characteristics of the Wood-Wind, except the actual material of which their tubes are made. For instance, the Saxophone is played with a single-beating-reed, very much like that of the Clarinet. It differs from that instrument principally in the fact that its tube is conical, not cylindrical, and made of brass, not of wood. Then, again, we find wooden instruments whose method of tone- production is practically the same as that used on most Brass Instruments. For instance, the obsolete Serpent was played with a big cup-mouthpiece somewhat like that of our modern “ Tubas.” It was, however, always made of wood.[1]
Furthermore, if any one fact is certain with regard to the Wind Instruments, it is that the material of which their tubes are made has very little, if anything, to do with their tone-quality. That seems to depend partly on the bore, shape, and proportions of the tube which contains the air-column, but chiefly on what we may call the “ mouth piece.” [2] Now, it is quite obvious that if we adopt the rough classification of “ Percussion,” “ Brass,” “ Wood,” and “ Strings,” we must be prepared to place such an instrument as the Saxophone arbitrarily under the heading “Brass” simply because of the material of its tube. That plan has its advantages. It serves as a mnemonic, and it does not preclude a description of the technical differences of the instrument from the “Wood-Wind” on the one hand, and from the “Brass-Wind” on the other. The student must, however, bear in mind that this is merely a matter of convenience in arrangement. It carries us no distance at all in the direction of a scientific classification.
-14-
It need scarcely be said that History gives us very little help in this respect. Its records are too obscure and confused. We may make a guess that the Kaffir’s one-stringed banjo—perhaps first suggested by the thrumming of the hand on the bow-string—was merely the third and last addition to a musical equipment which had served the needs and fulfilled the aspirations of mankind for hundreds or even thousands of years.
Earlier still than this we may imagine man as just emerging from his state of savagery, but emerging with a new and wonderful craving for something more than mere rhythm, a craving which may have been first satisfied by means of a hard blade of grass held between his two thumbs.
Finally, we may suppose a time at the beginning of things when the naked savage squatted down on his native mud, his mind half entranced, passive and vacant to every influence of the wild, but still with a thirst in his nature which could only be quenched by the endless drum-drum-drum of his knuckles on the black earth. Beyond this we can imagine nothing but the animal.
These are, however, only guesses. The order in which we have placed them has been hotly contested, and we have nothing but probabilities on which to found our judgment. We should naturally suppose that musical art began with the least complex and most fundamental thing in human nature, the purely rhythmic. That seems fairly certain. The “ percussive ” is at the bottom of all things. But it is quite uncertain what we are to put next. It may be the seven oaten straws [1] of the shepherd boy or the stretched string which found its final glory in the Apollo Citharoedus of Greece and the lovely play thing of Cremona.
Nor does it matter much. The array of instruments—ancient, mediaeval, and modern—is so bewildering in its variety that historical classification would be out of the question, except in a book specially devoted to that subject. A classification, however, is necessary, and this is only to be found by neglecting the unessential in the instrument. In other words, we must leave out of account its varied forms and the materials of which it is constructed. We must strip it of the complex mass of silver-smithery and brass-smithery in which it is nowadays often embedded. We must come down to essentials.
Now, the essential thing in music is the Series of Vibrations in the air. Until these are set up we can have neither the noise caused by irregular vibrations nor the musical sound caused by regular vibrations. Fortunately, almost all orchestral instruments produce musical sounds. A few, however, produce only noise. We must make our classification so as to include both these groups. It must be of the simplest possible nature, and must give us only the primary methods by which the vibrations can be mechanically set up in the air. We can then subdivide these classes by indicating either fundamental distinctions in the matter of tone-production or integral differences of
-15-
shape. In more concrete language we can show, in the Strings, [1] the various methods by which the strings are set in motion. In the Wind, we can study the effects caused by the varying proportions of the tubes which contain the air-columns and by the different methods of tone-production.
Now all sounds, whether musical or unmusical, are merely sense- impressions caused by longitudinal air-waves [2] of varying shapes and sizes. These air-waves, as far as the art of orchestration goes, are set up in one of three ways:
(1) By the beating of elastic surfaces which are in contact with the air;
(2) By the regular breaking up of air-columns enclosed either in tubes of metal or in pipes of wood;
(3) By the setting in motion of stretched strings which are in contact with the air.
All orchestral instruments are included under this primary classifi cation. We may label the three classes “Percussion,” “Wind,” and “ Strings ” respectively.
(1) PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS.
In the case of the first group [3], no further subdivision is scientifically necessary. The only subdivision that could be made would depend on the varying degree of elasticity in the beaten surfaces. An artistic subdivision, however, will be made into
(а) Those which produce noise but not musical sounds of a definite pitch;
(b) Those which produce sounds of definite musical pitch.
(2) WIND INSTRUMENTS.
The second group includes what are commonly known as the Brass- and Wood-Wind. In the case of all these instruments, the air- column is contained either in a conical or a cylindrical tube or pipe. As we have already mentioned, this air-column has to be regularly broken up before it can produce a musical sound. It is not sufficient
-16-
merely to blow through one end of the tube or pipe and allow the air to run out at the other. The air-column must be forced to vibrate evenly. This can be done in several ways.
First Method.
By simply blowing across the open end of the pipe, so that the breath strikes the rim. Instruments played in this way are known as Pipes with neither embouchure nor mouthpiece. The only representative of this subdivision is the Syrinx. No orchestral instruments are blown in this manner. The method has been found too imperfect to allow of musical development. The ancient “ Syrinx ” [1] of the early Hellenic civilization is exactly the same instrument as the modern “Pan’s Pipes” of the Punch-and-Judy showman.
Second Method.
The second method of setting the air-column in vibration is to direct a stream of wind from the lips across a circular hole bored in the pipe. The wind-stream or “air-reed” strikes the sharp edge of the hole on the side furthest from the player’s mouth. Instruments played in this way may be classed as Pipes without mouthpiece, but with embouchure. The whole family of Flutes [2] belongs to this subdivision.
Third Method.
In the third method a beak- or whistle-mouthpiece is used. The air-reed is directed through this mouthpiece against the sharp edge of a “ bevel ” cut in the side of the pipe. Instruments played in this way are known as Pipes with Whistle-mouthpiece. No orchestral instru ments are included in this group. The (orchestrally) obsolete Flageolet is the best-known member of the family. But in ancient days a great many instruments were played in this manner. The most familiar of these were the groups of Recorders and of Beak- or Fipple-Flutes. It must be added that the Flue- Work of the Modern Organ comes strictly into this subdivision.
Fourth Method.
In the fourth method a flexible reed is used. This may be (a) a single-reed, or (b) a double-reed.
(a) If it is a single-reed, it may be either what is known as a “single-beating-reed” or a “free-single-reed.” All orchestral single- reed instruments are blown with a beating-reed. This is so arranged that, when set in motion by the player’s breath, it beats against the
-17-
“ table ” at the upper end of the pipe, rapidly opening and closing the aperture. The families of Clarinets and Saxophones belong to this subdivision, and the subdivision is generally known as one of Pipes with reed-mouthpieces. In the case of the “reed-pipes” of the Organ the action is very much the same as that described above, but the “reed” itself is simply a strip of flexible metal.
The “ free-single-reed ” is not used in any orchestral instrument. In fact, the only instrument in which it has been put to practical use is the Harmonium. In this instrument the metal “reeds” are “set” in a series of apertures into which they just fit. Sufficient freedom is, however, left for them to vibrate to and fro. The amount of “ play ” is so adjusted that, while the reed can actually vibrate, it practically closes and opens the aperture at each vibration. It is thus able to communicate the vibratory motion to the enclosed air-space. [1]
In the ancient Regal—a small " Positive ” as opposed to a "Portative” Organ—the stops were originally reed-stops. The reeds employed were much like those of the Clarinet and Saxophone, “single-beating-reeds.” However, like those of the Organ, they were made of metal, not of cane. Scientifically they were quite distinct from the “ free-single-reeds ” of the Harmonium. [2]
(b) In the case of the double-reed, two flexible pieces of “ cane ” are bound vis-a-vis in this shape (). The aperture between the upper- ends of the two “ canes ” is extremely small. The player takes the double-reed between his lips, and, by the pressure of his lips and breath, forces it to vibrate. At each vibration, the narrow aperture between the two “ canes ” is alternately opened and closed. This, the second section of the subdivision, Pipes with reed-mouthpieces, is represented by the ancient Schalmeys and Pommers and the modern Oboe and Bassoon families.
The two kinds of Wood-Wind instrument with which we have been dealing, viz. those played with single-beating-reeds and those played with double-reeds, may be conveniently distinguished according to the bore of their pipes, as
(a) Cylindrical pipes...(The single-beating-reed Clarinet group).
(b) Conical pipes..........(The double-reed Oboe and Bassoon group).
This difference in the proportions of the pipes is of fundamental importance in the technique of the reed instruments. The matter will be explained more fully in a later portion of the book, [3] but meanwhile it may be briefly stated that in (a), cylindrical pipes, the “ fundamental
-18-
scale” can be reproduced (or “overblown”) by the player at the interval of a twelfth higher. In (b), conical pipes, the “fundamental scale” can be reproduced at an interval of an octave higher. This reproduction is effected by means of an increased pressure of the lips and breath, helped in some cases by the opening of certain holes specially bored for that purpose in the pipe itself.
It is important to notice that the Saxophones, though akin to the Clarinets in that they both make use of single-beating-reeds, are not cylindrical, but conical instruments. Their technique, therefore, as opposed to their tone-production, is totally distinct from that of the Clarinets. A correct classification, according to mere tone-production, would group the following instruments together:
Single-beating-reeds...The Clarinets. The Saxophones.
Double-reeds...............The Oboes and Bassoons.
A much more scientific classification would, however, be based on the fundamental nature of the instruments; that is to say, on the shapes of their pipes and tubes. We should then group them as follows:
Cylindrical pipes with single-beating-reeds....The Clarinet family.
Conical pipes [1] with single-beating-reeds......The Saxophone family.
Conical pipes with double-reeds.....................The Oboe and Bassoon families.
Before passing on to the description of the fifth method by which the air-column can be set in vibration, the student should notice that we have already included all the methods employed by the modern Wood-Wind. Two obsolete instruments, however, the Zinke (or Cornet à bouquin) and the Serpent, must be mentioned. The first of these was used as the ordinary treble of the Trombone family. It was originally made, as its French name suggests, of a ram’s horn. Afterwards other materials, such as ivory, bone, and wood, were employed. The Serpent, again, was usually associated with the Brass in performance. It was, however, actually made of wood. Both these instruments had a conical-bore and their scales were produced by means of holes pierced laterally. The method of tone-production was, however, quite distinct from that of any Wood-Wind instrument which we have hitherto described. It was, in fact, the cup-mouthpiece- system familiar to us today through its universal use on all the heavy Valved-Brass. The student must, however, remember that this association of the cup-mouthpiece with the heavy Brass is, so to speak, only an accident. As we have already pointed out, the material of which the tube is constructed matters very little. The method of tone-production is of the first importance.
-19-
Fifth Method.
The fifth method by which the air-column can be set in vibration is, as we have stated, the method now employed by all the Orchestral and Military Brass. A mouthpiece—almost always of metal [1]—is placed at the upper end of the tube. This mouthpiece is either cup-shaped, funnel-shaped, or a mixture of the two. The player’s lips stretch across the mouthpiece and themselves act as the vibrating reeds. The shape of the mouthpiece, especially the shape of its lower portion, is the main determining factor in the tone-quality of the instrument. [2] “The shallower the cup the more brilliant the tone.” [3]
The shallow “ cup ” is characteristic of the Trumpet: the broad deep “ cup ” of the modern “ Tubas.” On the other hand, the funnel-shaped mouthpiece is used for the Horns. To this they owe their warmer and less incisive tone-colour. A hybrid cup-and-funnel-shaped mouth piece is used for the Bugle.
The group which employs this, the fifth method of tone-production, includes all the Brass, ancient as well as modern, as well as the obsolete Zinke and the Serpent. It might of course be subdivided according to the shape of mouthpiece used. Such a subdivision, however, would be like that of the Single- and Double-Reeds merely one of tone-colour. It is better, as in the former case, to base the subdivision on the integral characteristics of the tubes themselves. As these tubes, whether they are conical or cylindrical, all produce the same series of notes, [4] we can make our subdivision depend solely on the natural methods of each instrument for altering the length of its air-column. The subdivision will then take the following form:
(1) Tubes of fixed length, which can therefore only produce a single series of notes at a time. The best examples are the Natural Trumpet, the Natural Horn, and the Military Bugle. [5]
(2) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of holes pierced laterally. The best examples are the Keyed-Bugle, the family of Ophicleides, and the Russian Bassoon. [6] All of these instruments were made of brass and are now obsolete.
(3) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of Valves, or Pistons. The best examples are the Valve- Trumpets, the Cornets, the Valve-Horns, the Saxhorns, the Flügel- horns, the Valve-Trombones, and the modern “ Tubas.” [7] As will be
-20-
explained later, [1] all these instruments are again divisible into what are called “ Whole-tube ” and “ Half-tube ” instruments.
(4) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of slides. The only instruments of this subdivision in general use are the Trombones.
(3) STRINGED INSTRUMENTS.
We now come to the third group of instruments in our elementary classification. This is the group which sets up vibrations in the air by means, of stretched strings. Orchestrally, it is the most complex group and the one that demands the greatest attention from the student. However, from our present purely scientific point of view, it is remarkably simple, and may be easily explained in a few sentences. In every case the stretched strings are of course in contact with the air. They cannot set the air in vibration until they themselves are first put in motion. The only subdivision possible is therefore based on the methods by which the player excites the strings. These methods are three in number.
First Method.
By plucking. In these instruments either the finger is used (as in the Harp or Guitar), or a plectrum (as in the Mandoline). [2]
Second Method.
By striking. In these instruments a hammer, or a series of hammers, is employed. The Dulcimer and the Pianoforte are the most familiar examples of this method.
Third Method.
By contact with a prepared moving surface. In these instruments either a horse-hair bow is used (as in the Violin family), or a wheel- and-handle mechanism (as in the ancient Organistrum and the modem Hurdy-Gurdy).
We shall now take the four groups of orchestral instruments, beginning with the simplest, the “ Percussion,” and going on through the "Brass” and the “Wood-Wind” to the most complex, the “ Strings.” A short preliminary chapter of a general character will be placed before each of these sections. In this chapter the common historical development of the Instrumental group will, whenever pos sible, be traced. This is not, however, always feasible. It can be done in the case of the Brass instruments and the Violin family. For, though there are exceptions in the general technical development of both these Instrumental groups, these*exceptions can easily be explained and brought into line with the rest of the history. For instance, in the “ Brass ” the general course of progress has been from the Natural outdoor instrument through the era of "crooks” to the
-21-
period of “ valves.” The Trombone family is the chief exception. But the Trombones obey just the same physical laws as the other Brass Instruments in the production of their "Harmonics.” The slide mechanism is their main differentiating feature. In a preliminary sketch, therefore, they can quite well be treated in company with the Trumpets and Horns.
In the Wood-Wind department, it is scarcely possible to group together these details of technical development. The individual instruments differ so much in the shapes of their pipes and their methods of tone-production that it is better to deal with these points under each instrumental heading.
In any case, only a very brief historical sketch is given. Just sufficient information is supplied to enable the student to understand clearly the origin of the instrument and the principal changes which it has undergone in construction and treatment. Composers too-often look upon orchestral instruments as cleverly manufactured toys springing from nowhere. Most of these instruments, however, have a very respectable family history. And this family history should be of interest, because, in almost every case, the modern instrument, under all its paraphernalia of rings, bolts, and bars, preserves intact the distinctive characteristics of its ancient progenitor. A seventeenth century Horn-player, if we could resuscitate him, would probably be considerably astonished at the Horn-playing which he would hear at a present-day Symphony-concert. But if he were a good Horn-player, it would not be many weeks before he would be quite competent to “ make one ” in the orchestral quartet.
Under the separate instrumental headings, such as “Violin,” “ Oboe,” and so on, the student will find precise technical details and examples of the orchestral use of the instrument. The technical details, especially in the case of shakes and tremolos, have been presented within the smallest possible space. When printed in extenso, they are often enough to make a fair-sized book. Whenever possible, they have been cut down either to a general formula or to the shortest possible list of what is practicable or impracticable, as the case may be. In this way, they can often be reduced to the limits of a few notes.
Some discretion has been used both in quoting and in compressing modern Full Scores. These, again, take up an enormous amount of space. As a rule unessential parts of the Score have been omitted, but these omissions are always clearly pointed out, either in the text or in a foot-note. A certain number of examples have to be selected solely to illustrate the technical capabilities and limitations of the various instruments. But in general an eye has been kept on their artistic value, from the point of view of Scoring. No apology need be made for referring over and over again to some of these quotations.
No. 49. The Cello
Fr. Violoncelle; It. Violoncello; Ger. Violoncell.
The Cello is in pitch an octave below the Viola. Its four strings, of which the lower two are “covered,” are tuned
Its fittings are very much the same as those of the Violin and Viola with the addition of a long metal “peg” or “ rest,” so arranged at the lower extremity that it can be slid through a hole into or out from the body of the instrument. In the latter case it is used by the performer as a firm support when playing: in either position it is held tight by a metal screw-head.
Theoretically the Cello shares with the Viola the disadvantage of being too small for its pitch, but this disadvantage, as we have already seen, is counterbalanced by the great height of its ribs and bridge. This difference in construction is only made possible by the player’s use of the sitting-position. And it is worth noting that this position has the effect of reversing the bow-attack, which is now normally from the bass-side of the instrument upwards and not, as in the Violin and Viola, from the treble-side downwards.
The result of these differences in construction is an instrument which is acoustically nearly as perfect as the Violin, and much more perfect than the Viola. Occasionally, in instruments of a poor quality, there may be some note or notes of a “wolfy” quality. This, however, is by no means a characteristic feature of the instrument. Widor remarks that the four semitones,
when played on the 3rd string are “ bad notes... their tone is rough, harsh, incongruous, and uncertain; this is equally true of all Violon cellos used for orchestral purposes, whoever may be the maker.” This seems rather too sweeping unless indeed the French orchestral cellist uses a type of instrument to which we are unaccustomed in this country.
Diatonic Left-hand technique.
This is quite different from the Violin-technique. The vibrating- length of string in the Cello is nearly double that of the Violin-string. Therefore, when playing in the lower positions near the nut, the cellist can stretch at most a tone from 1st finger to 2nd, and a semitone from 2nd to 3rd, and from 3rd to 4th. Thus he is forced to adopt a fingering not quite so regular as that of the violinist. It may he formulated as follows:
Three ascending notes, each of which is a whole tone from its neighbour, are fingered 1, 2, 4. Example:
Three ascending notes, of which the first two are divided by a semitone and the last two by a whole tone, are fingered 1, 2, 4. Example:
Three ascending notes, of which the first two are divided by a whole tone and the last two by a semitone, are fingered 1, 3, 4. Example:
As will be seen, this involves a certain amount of irregularity. In the first example the 2nd finger stretches the whole tone, from Bb to C, while, in the last example, it is the 3rd finger which stretches the whole tone. This, however, is by no means a source of weakness to the cellist.
The student will easily perceive that, as the fingers can stretch no more than a fourth above the open strings, the only diatonic scales practicable without shifting are those in which the open strings are employed. That is to say, in any other keys than Bi? major, F major, C major, G major and minor, and D major and minor, shifting must be used. Furthermore, all scales and passages that rise above
require shifting.
The student may be inclined to ask whether this endless moving of the left hand does not infer a cumbersome and angular technique little adapted to elaborate passage-work. The answer to this is a plain “No.” The best methods of taking the shifts have long ago been perfected and standardized, and capable players employ them in a way that quite evades observation. Also it must not be forgotten that, after a cellist has assumed any position, he has much better technical command in that position than the violinist has in his corresponding position. For diatonic purposes he has four fingers to serve three notes : the violinist has only four fingers for four notes. For chromatic purposes the cellist’s four fingers have to cover only five semitones : with the violinist the ratio is four fingers to at least six semitones. The important limitation with regard to this part of the Cello-technique is that at any given moment the cellist has command of a compass of only a major third.
Skips of a fourth can, of course, be used when necessary in passage writing, but the student should earnestly endeavour to avoid:
(1) Phrases—even slow cantabile phrases—which are continually skipping a fourth to-and-fro.
(2) Elaborate figures whose component parts are clearly founded on the interval of a fourth.
No. 2 is the more important point, and the point on which the beginner is more likely to go astray. Quick middle-register passages which a second- or even a seventy-second-rate fiddler can play with case, whatever his position, by merely stretching out his little finger to take the perfect fourth, may present a quite unnecessary degree of difficulty, or at any rate of awkwardness, to the cellist. A tiny group of rapid notes may involve two quick shifts up and down during its performance.
No. 1 is not so important, but even here it is surprising how few good Violin-melodies make good Cello-tunes, whatever the cunning with which they are transposed either in pitch or key.
In both cases—Nos. 1 and 2—the point to keep in mind is the position of the player’s hand at the beginning of the note-group. This is really a simple matter, and any thought expended in the improvement of phrases and their adaptation to the needs of the instrument will be well repaid in a more finished performance.
The technique as described above is employed as far as the high A one octave above the first open string. Above that the string-length between the various intervals is so much shortened that the cellist is Able to use the ordinary Violin finger technique.
In the highest register the thumb is withdrawn from its usual position on the bass-side of the neck and is placed firmly across and at right-angles to the string as a sort of artificial nut. These “ thumb-positions ” are a necessity for passages that lie above the high B,
Their use is generally indicated by the sign placed above the note on which the thumb is to rest, thus:
In orchestral music it is scarcely necessary to bother about this, as the players will find out the technique best adapted to their individual requirements. Some discretion, however, must be used in mixing the high thumb-positions promiscuously with the lower positions. There is considerable difficulty in jumping to the thumb-position and accurately fixing it, though, when once it is fixed, other thumb- positions can be taken with comparative ease. Even here, however, there are ways out of the difficulty. A series of note-groups that involve a continual shifting of the register up and down can be played across the strings without any shifting, provided the lowest note of the upper group is not more than a fifth above the lowest note of the lower group. This is, of course, obvious. The difficulties, how ever, become serious when a player is asked to play a note-group in a high thumb-position near the bridge, then to swoop down for a few notes to his 1st or 2nd position; and, immediately afterwards, to make a wild dash for his thumb-position again. That way madness lies.
Besides its use in the top-register technique the thumb is employed for stopping the lower note of those octaves whose lower note cannot be taken as an open string. For instance
This is not of great importance to the composer, for all octave-passages on the Cello are really too risky for orchestral use. Occasional isolated double-stopped octaves may, however, quite well be used if not taken too hastily. The following example, from which the whole of the Wood-Wind has been omitted, will illustrate this point. The passage occurs at Bar 25, 3rd movement, of Beethoven’s Choral Symphony. The interpolated note D in the Cello part (Bar 8 of the extract) needs no change of position, as it merely involves lifting the third finger and sounding the open string. The finger is then replaced and the octaves resumed in the original position.
The three octaves in which the lower note is an open string, viz.
can, of course, be used with freedom in the orchestra, but anything in the nature of octave passages had better be avoided. Even brilliant soloists, though they play such passages regularly in public, never seem able to play them “dead in. tune.”
Chromatic Left-Hand Technique.
Cellists have a very simple and regular chromatic technique. It consists in filling up the six semitones which occur between any two open strings with a repetition of the fingering 1, 2, 3. This is applicable to all the strings and all the keys. The differences of b or # cause no alteration in the fingering.
It will be seen that this technique is much more satisfactory than that of the Violin and Viola. Each separate note has a separate finger, and even ordinary players are able to obviate the bad effect that might be supposed to be inseparable from passages where there is so much shifting. Furthermore, this system of separate fingers gives to each individual semitone a clear-cut consonantal distinction. There is an absence of that blurred portamento effect which is inevitable on the Violin when two adjacent semitones are produced by sliding one finger backwards or forwards on the string. It only remains to add that the chromatic technique is applicable from the low C (4th string) to the A one octave above the 1st string. Above that it is as well to avoid chromatic passage-work altogether. To be effective and even possible in that register chromatic passages must be quite short and simple. Lengthy chromatic scales and figures which have an elaborate chromatic contour are best transferred to the Violas.
Three clefs are used for Cello music—
The bass-clef is employed for the lower- and middle-registers, the tenor-clef for the next higher register, and the treble-clef for the top most notes of all. All these three clefs are used nowadays with their proper pitch-significance. It is quite obvious that the use of the tenor- clef is something of an anachronism. The sole object in using more than one clef is to avoid leger-lines. The treble-clef, however, owes its general acceptance principally to the fact that it follows the bass-clef with only an interval of a single leger-line common to both. Almost all Cello-music, therefore, could quite as well be written in the treble- and bass-clefs; and all high Cello-passages are best when written in the latter clef. In a few Cello-passages, however—those which lie somewhere in this register
—the employment of the tenor-clef obviates the use of leger-lines. Passages, therefore, which lie in and near this register, let us say, between A and A,
are generally written in that clef. Anything that lies continually above middle C is much better confined to the treble-clef.
The convenience of using the treble-clef for the top register of the Cello was quite understood by the classical German masters. How ever, the medicine-man’s primitive idea of surrounding his craft with as much mystery as possible was too much for their good intentions. Having adopted the clef for the sake of its convenience, they wrote
their passages in that clef an octave too high. This prevented it be coming too convenient. Consequently these few simple notes
appear in Beethoven’s Eb Quartet thus:
Sixteen leger lines used where none is necessary. Any argument which justifies the good sense of writing the passage an octave higher will also justify the better sense of writing it two octaves higher.
Upward Compass.
may be suggested as a reasonable upward-limit for orchestral writing, but it is difficult to lay down a hard and fast rule on this point. One must remember that cellists play with comparative ease in the higher positions on their top-string. This is by no means a recently acquired accomplishment on their part. Haydn writes for the mass of his Cellos as high as
and Beethoven does not hesitate to take a Solo Cellist a fourth higher- This is the phrase in his own step-ladder notation:
Passages written in these lofty nipping altitudes are fairly common in the most modern- school of orchestration. On the other hand, it must not be overlooked that such passages, if they are really to come off when played by a dozen instrumentalists, must have a certain simplicity and suitability of outline. Cellists as a body are excellent
technicians, but a passage which a single player can ease to his own requirements in the topmost register will probably sound doubtful under the rigorous conditions of a big unison-ensemble. For instance, it would need a very rare group of executants to perform satisfactorily Strauss’s solo-phrase which portrays the last struggle and aspirations of the dying Knight.
Chords.
Owing to the length of the strings and the consequent difficulty in stopping groups of notes with the fingers, the number of Cello-chords is a good deal smaller than those available on the Violin or Viola.
Double-Stops.
Needless to say all combinations of adjacent open strings are possible. Furthermore, it is unnecessary to detail all the double-stops in which one of the two strings is open. They follow the same general rules as were given under the heading “ Violin.”
Double-stops in which no note is open.
The best general rule to give here is that all perfect fifths, minor and major sixths, diminished and minor sevenths, may be used pro vided the top note is not higher than
(1) Avoid all major sevenths. Their stretch is too great.
(2) Perfect fifths are more satisfactory, and may be used with less
apprehension on the Cello than on the Violin and Viola.
Triple-stops in which two notes are open.
These follow the same general rules as those applicable to the Violin.
Triple-stops in which one note is open.
The following are available:
Combinations of the open note
with any kind of fifth or sixth of which the lower note is either of the following:
Also these three chords
Combinations of the open note
with any kind of fifth or sixth of which the lower note is any of the following:
In combinations of the open note
the two-stopped notes of the chord are of course on the 3rd and 4th strings. The only chords which have any orchestral value are these three :
In combinations of the open note
the two-stopped notes of the chord are on the 2nd and 3rd strings. The only chords which have any orchestral value are these three:
Triple-stops in which no note is open.
The general rule here is the same as that for the Violin. See and read it on page 322. There are, however, these two added limitations:
- No chord may contain any sort of seventh.
- The topmost note must not go higher than
Quadruple-stops in which three notes are open. The rule is the same as that for the Violin. See page 322.
Quadruple-stops in which two notes are open. Combinations of the two open notes
with any simple fifths and sixths on the two upper strings built on this pattern:
The upper parts of the chords must not go beyond
Quadruple-stops in which one note is open.
Practically only those in which the three upper parts are arranged on this model
The upper parts of the chords must not go beyond
Quadruple stops in which no note is open.
Practically only those in which the four parts are arranged on this model
The upper parts of the chords must not go beyond
The above are the general rules, stated as concisely as possible. The following is a list of the most serviceable chords for orchestral use. They are grouped first as simple two-part intervals, and then as three- part and four-part chords.
Two-Part Intervals.
Seconds.
Only those which contain an open-string—viz.,
The following are less satisfactory:
In these cases the lower (open) note is played on the upper string, while the upper (stopped) note is played on the lower string.
Thirds.
The following are possible:
But note that those taken on the top strings are the most satisfactory, and those taken on the middle strings the least so. Whichever strings are used—top, middle, or bottom—those thirds which lie in the lower positions (for the left hand) are most certain.
Fourths.
In addition to the augmented fourth on the low Db
all perfect and augmented fourths are possible, provided the lower note is any note chromatically from
Fifths.
All perfect fifths chromatically upwards from
Augmented fifths may be regarded for purposes of technique simply as minor sixths.
Sixths.
All minor and major sixths chromatically upwards from
Sevenths.
Minor sevenths are as well avoided unless the lower of the two notes is an open string,
All other minor sevenths are somewhat uncertain in the orchestra. However, they have to be used occasionally when writing for the Strings alone. If no other arrangement of the seventh can be made, they may be used at a pinch. In that case the limits of
should not be exceeded.
Avoid stopped major sevenths altogether. Only rarely can cellists stretch so great an interval with ease and accuracy. The three major
sevenths which involve no stretch—viz., those which have an open string as their lower note,
can be employed freely.
Three-Part and Four-Part Chords.
Triads and their inversions.
All major and minor triads and their first and second inversions, provided the note
is not exceeded as the top note in any chord. There is only one pattern for each group of these chords, and that pattern, in three-part and four-part harmony, is as follows:—
Triads:
First inversions:
Second inversions:
Dominant Sevenths.
These chords, which can be obtained in a practicable form in most keys on the Violin and Viola, are scarcely worth using on the Cello. In three-parts only six are worth considering—viz., those in the keys of F, Gb, Gnatural), C, Db, Dnatural. They are as follows:
In four-parts, only this chord in the key of F is of any use:
All the other four-part dominant sevenths are impracticable in the orchestra, for a simple reason. The bass-note and fifth have to be stopped by the 1st finger on the two bottom strings. The natural method of playing a four-part string chord is then to stop the 2nd string with the 2nd (or 3rd) finger slightly farther away from the nut, and to stop the top string with the 3rd or 4th finger still farther away. This is the normal “spread” of the fingers on all stringed instruments. It cannot, however, be adopted in the case of a dominant seventh. The third of the key-note is higher on the 2nd string than the minor seventh is on the 1st string. The notes of the chord have therefore to be taken in an awkward and unnatural position. In reference to their nearness to the nut, the bass note and fifth come first: then comes the dominant seventh (on the top string): then the major third (on the 2nd string). This artificial placing of the fingers is possible as well on the Cello as on the Violin and Viola. At the same time, it is not congenial to their nature. Chords so arranged are never very effective in performance.
Dominant Ninths.
None possible but these two:
and, for reasons given above, these are better avoided.
Parts of “Diminished Sevenths.”
In three-parts these may be used at a pinch, but they almost all involve the awkwardness of fingering which has just been described. The awkwardness is least felt in those which have an open string as bass-note
When the 1st finger has to be used to stop the bass-note the chords are much more crooked and tiresome to play. If they cannot possibly be avoided, they may be written on the pattern given above. The upward limit should be top G
In four-parts all “ diminished sevenths ” are out of the question.
Augmented fifths.
These are quite practicable in three-parts. In four-parts all, except the lowest possible chord which has open C (4th string) for its bass- note, require a certain amount of time. The player has to adjust each of his four fingers on the four strings in an ascending semitonic degree of sharpness. He must therefore have the opportunity of fairly fixing the chord before playing it. Otherwise it will tend to sound like two two-part chords broken in the middle. The upward limit for the top notes of these chords is the same as that for the triad and its inversions—high G—and the only models on which they should be written are
Chords built up on any of the three following models must be avoided altogether:
Any playable chords can be taken in arpeggio; but harmonic accom paniments built up in this way, though by no means unknown, are less common on the Cello than on the Violin and Viola. This is partly due to their weight, and partly to the almost necessarily wide down ward spread of the chords. Still they are quite practicable, and, especially in the mf and f, very effective.
Natural Harmonics.
The technique, notation, and available list of Natural-Harmonics is exactly the same on the Cello as on the Violin and Viola. All that was said above under the heading “ Violin ”1 can therefore be read of the Cello, if transposed down a twelfth.
Artificial Harmonics.
The technique is the same as on the Violin and Viola. The compass, however, is a little more extended. On the Violin and Viola the upward limits are about
On the Cello the limit may fairly be extended to
The complete Harmonic compass of the Cello in both Natural and Artificial Harmonics is therefore
Of these notes the first three can only be played in Natural Harmonics. The rest can all be played in Artificial Harmonics, and the notes which are marked thus + can be taken both ways.
A very simple example of a chord for two Solo Cellos playing in Artificial Harmonics has already been quoted from Humperdinck’s Hansel und Gretel. The notation in the Full Score is of course not the one printed above, but this:
The upper of these two parts is another example of the license mentioned above. The sound two octaves above the open string is actually performed as a Natural Harmonic. The second Cello-part can only he played as an Artificial Harmonic.
Shakes.
As with the Violin and Viola, shakes, both whole-tone and half tone, may be employed through practically the whole of the playing compass. As the pitch descends, however, the slowness of the vibrations produces, on the Cello, a somewhat tubby effect. This applies in some degree to the bottom string of the Viola also. On the Cello it is as well to avoid, except for a particular effect, shakes on the C string.
The Cello Bow.
The Cello Bow is shorter, heavier, and less elastic than the Violin Bow. It can, however, perform with finish and distinction all the Violin coups d’archet. The greater constructional perfection of the Cello gives it an advantage over the Viola. All the bow-strokes, not merely the heavier bow-strokes, are quite congenial to its easy, free speaking nature. Nevertheless it shares with the Viola its antipathy to lengthy slurs. In the f and mf especially these should be dealt out
with a somewhat niggardly hand. More particularly in cases where an appreciable melodic crescendo is called for, the player is handi capped by long slurs. He is compelled either to alter the phrasing or to harden and tighten the tone. If the composer breaks up the phrases and remembers (1) that the point and the nut are respectively the weak and the strong parts of the bow, and (2) that therefore the V is the best crescendo stroke, he will secure an accurate ensemble in the phrasing and a better melodic effect.
In a more general way it may be repeated that the careful adjustment of slur-lengths to tone required is an insurance against careless orchestral playing. In p and pp passages the judicious lengthening of the slurs makes a crescendo or an “ orchestral mezzo-forte ” a practical impossibility. Then, when a crescendo is required, the breaking up of the slurs gives the String-players a surprising ease and freedom of movement. Attention to small points of differences, such as this, meets its due reward at rehearsal.
Tremolos.
Both Bowed- and Fingered-Tremolos are in common use, and there is little to add to what has been already said on the subject. Bowed tremolos in the upper register are naturally not often allotted to the Cellos. In the middle-orchestral-register, even if the Violins are not at liberty to make the tremolo, it is generally better to secure the chord by a division of the Violas rather than by employing the Cellos for that purpose. Lower still, in the bottom- and lower-middle- register of the Cello, tremolos are often written for special purposes.
In arranging Fingered-Tremolos for the Cellos it is important to notice that the utmost stretch possible between the 1st and 4th fingers on the same string is only a major third: with the 1st finger on one string and the 4th finger on the next higher string the maximum stretch for most players is a minor seventh. A point to be kept in mind with regard to the Cello tremolo is that it is something more of a “ fact,” something slightly more present to the consciousness than the tremolo of the upper stringed instruments.
Everything that has been said already with regard to the ponti- cello, the sul tasto, the col legno applies as much to the Cello as to the Violin. The Mute is in regular use. It must, however, be confessed that one rarely hears a group of orchestral Cellos adequately muted. The little “ clip ” mutes scarcely veil the tone at all. In fact they rob the instrument of its romantic tone-colour, and do not substitute for it the proper mysterious muted quality. Then, again, light wooden mutes without sufficient substance are often chosen so that their loose clutch shall not harm the bridge. In either case the result is dis appointing. The lower strings are enfeebled without being much altered, while the tone-colour of the top-string changes, not from one kind of poetry to another, but from poetry to prose.
The Pizzicato.
A special word must be said with regard to the Cello pizzicato for, besides its stereotyped usefulness as the ordinary bass of the String pizzicato, it possesses exactly the right mixture of suppleness and resonance for playing what may be called left-hand pianoforte arpeggios. Used thus, it gives a delightful piquancy and a sort of subordinate prominence to its part. It is happiest when contrasted in a quiet ensemble with the bowed upper Strings or with the Wood Wind. A Cello part of this sort generally lies, especially in the lighter forms of music, somewhere between the 3rd string and the note D one twelfth above. It usually includes a statement of the true bass at the beginning of each bar followed by an easy and not too rapid arpeggio on the two upper strings. These pizzicato parts never stray very far outside the bounds of a somewhat severe simplicity. Broken chords that lie well under the hand and short, easily-played scale passages are the most effective. In this medium even the simple alternation of tonic and dominant sounds charming. Here are the first four bars from the Opening Chorus of The Mikado (Act II.).
Sullivan’s touch in passages of this sort was of the lightest. Of all the accompaniments in his Comic Operas perhaps the most graceful is that to Phoebe’s song, Were I thy bride, in Act I. of The Yeomen of the Guard. It is simplicity itself, merely repeated chords on the muted
Violins, a simple pizzicato quaver figure on the Cellos, helped on the second half of the bar by the divisi Violas, a pizzicato Bass-note every other bar and a four-part Wood-Wind chord to set things going. As a miniature it is exquisite.
The student would do well to compare the sound of this as played on the pianoforte with the intended sound in the orchestra. He would also do better to consider, not only the notes which Sullivan has written, but the many other notes which he might have written but didn’t.
The type of Cello pizzicato seen in the last two examples is equally effective when the upper parts are played by the Wind. In the general mf ensemble ofStrings, Wood-Wind, and Horns, the Cello part may be associated with the dry staccato of the Bassoon. In the latter case it is often wise, either to divide the passage up between two Bassoons, or, if the figures are allotted to a single instrument, to omit the bass- note. The lower staccato notes of the Bassoon are sometimes a little too heavy and the Double-Basses, of course, supply the omission. In addition this arrangement gives the Bassoonist regular places for breathing.
In the more serious forms of music the Cello pizzicato, without being bound down to a persistent figure of accompaniment, appears in delightful combinations with the Wood-Wind and Horns. Brahms often makes a very happy use of this method in his Allegrettos. Of these one cannot quote a better example than the opening of the 3rd Movement of his Symphony in G minor.
Here the flowing Clarinet-tune and the easy upward movement of the Horn are charmingly contrasted and combined with the pointed Cello-bass. Notice also the unexpected and happy entry of the three upper String-parts, p dolce <>, and their no less unexpected
and happy exit. The held Oboe-C with its little crescendo, followed by two bars of movement diminuendo, and then twelve bars rest, is
well worth noting for its tiny perfection. The student should examine the whole of this movement in the full score, as the pizzicato Cello- bass plays quite a prominent part in it throughout.
As with the other Strings there is a certain upward limit beyond which it is inadvisable to write the pizzicato. This limit, fixed by the shortness of the string and the consequent dryness of the tone, may be exactly illustrated by the little unaccompanied scale-passage which leads from Scene II. to Scene III. in Act III. of Humperdinck’s Hansel und Gretel. Anything higher than the last note of this passage—top Bb—is not very effective.
(footnote: A Bassoon-fifth, B and F#, is omitted from the first beat of this quotation.)
Tone-Quality.
The Cello is, in the instrumental force, the vocal complement of the Violin. The one is the poet of the orchestra, the other the poetess. The one associates itself with our ideas of the Male-Voice, the other with those of the Female-Voice.
It is scarcely necessary to describe the poignant aching quality of the Cello top-string, which, in the three semitones of Tristan, is able to foretell a drama. The use of this tone-colour for melodic purposes is so common nowadays that one may almost call it an abuse. It is wise to bear this point in mind. The singing ecstatic quality of the Cello top-string is not for all tunes. Unless they have something of grief, of passion, or of chivalry they will suffer from an excess of emphasis.
Some few examples of the Cello used on its top string have already been given. The following extract, however, shows the somewhat unusual melodic unison of the Cellos with the 1st Violins and one Bassoon. The passage occurs at the extreme end of Tschaikowsky’s Fantasy-Overture Romeo and Juliet, and is interesting, not only from the point of view of the String-ensemble, but as an example of a persistent. Drum rhythm supported by the Bass pizzicatos and the tenuto of the Tuba.
To the musical ear the “ D ” is probably the most beautiful string on the Cello. Its notes differ totally from the same notes when played on the Viola. The latter instrument has a certain hollow tragic sound on its C string, a sound that is easily capable of orchestral prominence. On the other hand, the Cello “D” is characterized by a sort of caressing reticence. In fact, it is not going too far to say that, of all the soft, silky sounds in the orchestra, it is the softest and silkiest. Forceful it cannot be called, but when unaccompanied, or only lightly accom panied, it is capable of expressing the most 'poetical feelings. For an example of its lovely tone-quality one need travel no further than Beethoven’s
The bottom (covered) strings of the Cello bear some analogy to those of the Viola, but their tone is more “straightforward” and less unexpected. In solo passages they have a certain mingled smoothness and austerity which fits them for the performance of very serious and deeply-felt passages. An excellent example covering the range of the three bottom strings is to be found in the familiar Cello passage with which the 3rd Act of Die Meistersinger opens. Another and even better instance may be quoted here from the 2nd Act of Lohengrin.
In the above example the long slurs, so characteristic of Wagner, are, of course, absolutely impracticable as far as the orchestral player goes. They are, in fact, not bow-marks at all, but merely vague directions that a legato performance is required. The phrasing is left to the conductor. In nine cases out of ten the deplorable result is that the players adopt a bowing each at his own sweet will. Fortunately it is quite easy to break up a passage like this into its component bow- phrases. Even in the first long legato, which extends for six bars and a crotchet, it is quite obvious that a new bow must be used for the repeated C# at the beginning of bar 4. Similarly the second crotchets of bars 5 and 9 would be naturally played with new bow-strokes. Nor are these the only places where this long legato can be broken up to suit the exigencies of the String-technique. The student may profitably examine any of Wagner’s colossal slurs from this point of view, always remembering that the breaking up of a cantabile into its necessary bow-phrasing does not destroy its legato character, and that the difference between the two. ways of writing involves the difference between personal accuracy and the merely haphazard.
It need hardly be said that one of the principal functions of the Cellos, in their middle and bottom registers, is to play the bass, and this they do quite efficiently, provided there are enough of them in the orchestra. “ Remember that violoncellos supply a perfectly adequate and sonorous bass without any double basses at all, and that the double basses are only an adjunct to them in this capacity for purposes
of reinforcement and not vice versa.” This is true in a general sense, but more particularly with regard to the String legato, as can be seen from the many pages in Die Meistersinger where the Basses are omitted. In other cases even when the Cellos are the main support of the harmony an occasional pizzicato for the Basses helps the Cellos without robbing them of their dignified task.
As more and more Wood-Wind is added to the orchestral mass the addition of the Basses becomes more imperative, and when the weight of the Horns is superadded, they cannot be dispensed with, even in the concert-room. On the other hand, in those theatres which are devoted to light Opera—that is to say, in the vast majority of Houses —where the orchestra averages about 35, the Cellos are, except on the rare occasions of quiet legato String-harmony, a not sufficiently solid foundation. The Basses, therefore, have to be used much more continually, though, even when both are playing the bass, in a manner different from that appropriate to the Cellos.
One may note that, in those cases where the Cellos alone are sup porting the weight of the other strings, they do so more satisfactorily when their notes are fairly near the rest of the harmony. When, in these circumstances, they descend to their bottom-string, a certain hollowness becomes apparent. This may be an acoustic fact or it may be due only to our ideas which associate this type of passage with the Double-Bass, and so call for its solidity of utterance and its easy power of reinforcing the harmonies with its own wealth of upper-partials.
The union of the Violas and Cellos as a separate tone-group has already been discussed under “ Viola.” Nothing more need be said on that point. Two other combinations may be mentioned.
(1) The union of Cellos with Basses in a low-pitched harmonic or contrapuntal combination. In passages of this sort, provided the String-quality is called for, there is usually only a choice in the arrangement of parts. If there are not more than two of these the arrangement is obvious. The Cellos take the upper and the Basses the lower part. In three parts it is usually better to divide the Cellos, and, if necessary, to reduce the number of Basses. The Cello divisi is better than double-stopping even when the latter is practicable. This applies more especially to the p and the mp. In the rare cases where there are more than three parts and the top-part cannot be played by the Violas, it is, as a rule, better to subdivide the Cellos again. However, if the two lower parts are merely playing in fifths and octaves, there is not so much danger of the unpleasant clash of overtones resulting from the divided Bass-parts. If the Basses are divided it is always better for safety’s sake to indicate the use of more Bass-players on the bottom part.
(2) The Cello Divisi. This highly effective combination is occasionally used to form a rich harmony accompanying the 1st Cello. The chords are generally well spread in four or five parts so that the two top Cellos at least are playing on their A-string. In arrangements of this sort a Solo Cello usually plays the melody, while each of the
middle parts is assigned to two players; a couple of Basses doubles the bass-part either in the unison or the octave below. See the well- known introduction to Rossini’s William Tell overture and the passage at the beginning of Die Walkure, where Siegmund drinks (full score, page 11). It may be mentioned that though this Cello divisi is gene rally used in a sort of full-dress way, it is highly interesting when employed merely as a passing effect. The rich sound of three or four Cellos playing in harmony on their top-string makes a delightful change from the eternal Horn-harmony. In smaller combinations and in arrangements from larger works it can, of course, be used to represent the Horns, and, in doing so, it often throws a new light on the orchestral prospect.
Up to the end of the eighteenth century the Cello in the orchestra was, like the Double-Bass, merely a bass-player. The two instruments ran together, a stag and an elephant in double-harness. Haydn and Mozart, asking only for a quiet uneventful journey, drove the pair well enough. So long as the ground was smooth and the pace easy the arrangement answered admirably. When, however, the musical coach was enlarged, rebuilt, and furiously driven by Beethoven, the old ruts and the old yoke-fellows were found unsatisfactory. Beethoven unyoked his pair. He saw that, except when every solid ounce of strength was needed for collar-work on a heavy road, the lighter animal would do better in a light cart of its own. In other words, he recognized the possibilities and the greater individuality of the smaller instrument. And his curriculum in these matters can be followed easily step by step from its first starting-point in the Eroica Symphony to its goal in the G minor and Choral Symphonies. Reference has already been made to the numerous places in his Symphonic works where he detaches the Cellos for purely melodic purposes. On such occasions he usually doubles them either with a Bassoon, with the Violas, or with both. But his reformation is not merely the discovery of the Cello as a vehicle for orchestral melody. He also discovered the fact that the Cello demands a sort of writing different from that of the Double-Bass. If the student will take a Score of the Choral Symphony, and, turning the pages quickly, will follow the bottom two lines, he will see at once many places where the outline of the upper part is distinct from that of the lower. Greater freedom and range is allowed to the lighter instrument. In a Mozart work these differences scarcely exist. In a Beethoven work they do exist. Of course it would be an exaggeration to say that they show the same width of divergence as would be normal in a modern work. But the patent—in this case of nobility—goes to the inventor.
The Cello then is bequeathed to modern orchestral music in a three-fold capacity:
(1) As a plastic bass-instrument, either alone, in unison, or in octaves with the Double-Basses. (See the Storm at the beginning of Die Walkure, where for the first sixteen bars the Cellos and Basses are in actual unison and afterwards in octaves.) This use is, in modern music, rather more strictly confined to the quieter modes of expression.
(2) As a melodic vehicle. (See any modern score, for instance the top part of the Cello divisi in Act I. of Die Walkure or the Preislied phrases in Act III. of Die Meistersinger.) In this use the Cello may be said to stand to-day very much where Beethoven left it. The character of its tunes is altered, and their upward range a good deal extended, but otherwise there is little difference.
(3) As a medium for elaborate passage- and figure-playing. It is in this particular that the modern Cello writing differs most from the ancient. Beethoven foreshadowed the change, but did not bring it bodily forward. If, however, we open any score of to-day, say Strauss’s Don Juan or Ein Heldenleben, we shall be at once struck by the fact that for a considerable portion of the time the Cellos are wholly detached from the Basses, and are playing difficult complex passages which have comparatively a much greater value in the general orchestral ensemble than is apparent in the classical style of Cello-writing. It is not merely that the compass is extended, but that the whole outlook on the instrument’s capabilities and its proper place in the orchestra is enlarged. To illustrate this point adequately one would need to print a dozen or twenty pages of brilliant passage-work from the most modern Scores. That is impossible in a book of this size. The student, however, can hear its importance by attending any concert where a late eighteenth century work is brought into juxtaposition with one of the late nineteenth or early twentieth century.