Module III: Applications of Timbre and Timbral Analysis

Teaching Timbre Topics
Written By Timbre and Orchestration Resource

Teaching and Learning | Teaching Timbre Topics | Module III

Applications of Timbre and Timbral Analysis

About these modules

Modules created by: Lena Heng and Kelsey Lussier
Edited by: Stephen McAdams, Bob Hasegawa, Kit Soden
Web version designed by Mitra Khodadadi
More info at the Teaching Timbre Topics project can be found here.

Timbre is a foundational aspect of hearing, and it is fundamental to all sounds, and by extension, all music. It has, however, often stood at the periphery of the aspects of music we study and talk about. It is difficult to describe, it is complex to untangle, it is too complicated to understand. But this is also fortunately, gradually changing. Timbre studies is an emerging field, there is an increasing interest and new breakthroughs in timbre related topics.

These modules are not meant to be complete syllabi or specific lesson plans, but flexible resources that can be drawn on for individual classes. 

Acknowledgements

These modules have been created from course syllabi generously shared with the Teaching Timbre Topics Team by Jennifer Beavers, Landon Morrison, Robert Hasegawa, Stephen McAdams, Judy Lochhead, Emily Dolan, Megan Lavengood, and Lindsey Reymore & Matthew Zeller. Many of these syllabi are available on ACTOR’s Timbre and Orchestration Resource website.
Thank you all for your contributions!

Module III: Applications of Timbre and Timbral Analysis

General goals for this module:

  1. 1.     To explore how timbre and its analysis can be applied in various musical contexts, such as composition, conducting, orchestration, etc.

    2.     To explore different means of representing timbre and their utility in composition, as well as in communicating analytical ideas.

    3.     To understand ways timbre might function in composition and orchestration, and its practical uses.

This third module delves into the applications of timbre and timbral analysis. There are three sub-modules: Transcription, representation, and synthesis of timbre; Composing with timbre; and Timbre and orchestration. Each of these sub-modules deals with different aspects concerning applying timbre into composition and subsequent analytical output.

3.1 Transcription, representation, and synthesis of timbre

How timbre is transcribed, represented, and synthesized in music is complex and intriguing. This module is driven by a set of fundamental questions that seek to explore the intricacies of timbral representation in different musical contexts. Key areas of inquiry include examining the notated representation of timbre in Western classical music, investigating the effectiveness and measurement of this method, and exploring how timbre is represented in various musical cultures worldwide.

An important aspect of this sub-module is the exploration of timbre representation in graphic scores, which offers a different perspective compared to the conventional Western notation. Comparisons will be made between graphic scores and conventional notations to understand the similarities and differences in representing timbre and its effects.

Furthermore, the sub-module delves into the utilization of software programs to represent timbre and explores their effectiveness in analysis and interpretation. It also aims to identify areas for improvement in these programs.

By providing resources and engaging activities, this sub-module serves as a valuable starting point for investigating and discussing the aforementioned questions. It offers a platform for students to critically analyze and comprehend the various methods of representing timbre in both composition and analysis, facilitating a deeper understanding of the multifaceted nature of timbral expression in music.

Keywords: Timbre representation, notation, graphic scores, software for timbre notation

Central problem and goals: This sub-module is motivated by the following questions:

  • How is timbre represented in notated music, if at all? More specifically: including instrumentation, what timbral effects can be notated? How are they represented?

  • How effective is this method of notation? How can we measure its efficacy?

  • How is timbre notated/represented in various musical cultures throughout the world? What is particularly idiomatic about these methods of representation/notation?

  • How is timbre represented in graphic scores? How does this representation compare to traditional Western methods of notating timbre and timbral effects?

  • How can software programs represent timbre? How can we apply these software programs in analysis and/or interpretation? How effective are they and how can they be improved?

Consequently, this sub-module provides resources and activities that act as a starting point for investigating and discussing these questions, focusing on methods of representing timbre in composition and analysis., music theory, analyzing timbre, theorizing timbre, methodology.

Keywords: Timbre notation, timbre representation.

Objectives

The objectives of this submodule are: firstly, to identify and examine different methods of representing timbre; secondly, to engage in discussions and evaluations surrounding these representations; and thirdly, to assess their practical value in both composition and analysis. The primary aim is to explore the diverse ways in which timbre can be captured and communicated, while also critically evaluating their effectiveness and applicability in the realms of music creation and sound analysis. This undertaking seeks to deepen the understanding of timbral representation and its significance in artistic expression and scholarly examination.

Topics & Resources

Notation techniques

New ways of representing timbre, extension of notational methods.

 

Key Resources

  • De Vale, S. C. (1984). Prolegomena to a study of harp and voice sounds in Uganda: A graphic system for the notation of texture in studies in African music. In K. Nketia & J. Cogdell DjeDje (Eds.), Selected reports in ethnomusicology (Vol. 5, pp. 285–315). University of California Press.

  • Thoresen, L. (2010). Form-building patterns and metaphorical meaning. Organised Sound, 15(02), 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355771810000075

  • Thoresen, L. (2012). Exosemantic analysis: Analysis of music-as-heard. The Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference. The Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference, Stockholm.

Additional resources

  • Metfessel, M. (1928). Phonophotography in folk music: American negro songs in new notation. University of North Carolina Press.

 

Technology

Technology in timbral-compositions.
Technology as extension of traditional composition processes.

 

Key Resources:

Additional Resources:

 
 
 

Timbre representation

How can timbre be represented, not only as notated score to aid performance, but also how can it be represented in performance.

 

Key resources:

Additional resources:

  • Schwartz, A. (2018). Don’t Choose the Nightingale: Timbre, Index, and Birdsong in Respighi’s Pini Di Roma. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.18

  • Thoresen, L. (2010). Form-building patterns and metaphorical meaning. Organised Sound, 15(02), 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355771810000075

  • Thoresen, L. (2015). Emergent musical forms: Aural explorations. Department of Music Research and Composition.

  • Thoresen, L. (2012). Exosemantic analysis: Analysis of music-as-heard. The Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference. The Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference, Stockholm.

 
 
 

Activities

Reading responses

  • Comment on the assigned article by Lasse Thoresen in a brief response essay (400–600 words).

    • Consider both positive and problematic aspects of the article, and evaluate the effectiveness of this methodology in analyzing the work by Parmerud. If you like, speculate on the utility of Thoresen’s analytical tools for other repertoires: what kinds of musical works might be good subjects for this approach to analysis.

    • Reflect on and problematize how music studies and our language for describing music address topics of timbre.

Analysis

  • Choose an excerpt of 60 seconds from Natasha Barrett’s Little Animals: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEIPHz1Ddkc&ab_channel=NatashaBarrett-Topic,
    and make a graphic analysis describing what you find most significant in the passage.
    You can use Thoresen’s symbols, any other existing system of analytical notation, or a symbolic vocabulary of your own devising. While you may refer to Barrett’s graphic score in Figure 2 of her article, you’re encouraged to develop an independent analytical viewpoint. Your analysis doesn't need to be publication- ready: handwritten sketches are acceptable as long as they’re clear and legible. Make sure that you clearly indicate timings showing where the events that you describe fall in the piece as a whole. Upload your graphic analysis with a short accompanying text of 250–500 words (preferably as a single document), explaining your analytical findings and (if necessary) how to understand the image.

3.2 Composing with timbre

Timbre, in recent decades, has taken center stage as the primary organizing element in a significant body of music composed or created since the mid-twentieth century. Composers have embraced timbre as a powerful tool, employing it to shape the structure and form of their compositions, as well as to create captivating colors, novel textures, and other sonic effects. This sub-module aims to delve into the rich landscape of how composers utilize timbre in their musical works. It seeks to explore the techniques and methods employed to achieve desired timbral effects, while also investigating the broader impact of these developments on the way we listen to and approach music composition. By examining the intricate relationship between timbre and musical expression, this sub-module provides an opportunity to uncover new perspectives and insights into the transformative role of timbre in contemporary music.

Keywords: Timbre as a structuring force, composition techniques, contemporary composition

Central problem and goals: Timbre has emerged as the predominant organizing feature of much music composed or created since the middle years of the twentieth century. Composers use timbre in various ways — as a way of creating form and structuring their music, in a colouristic manner creating new sounds and textures, and many more. This sub-module will attempt to look into the ways in which composers use timbre in their composition, how the desired effects may be achieved, and how these have influenced or spurred new ways of listening to and composing music.

Keywords: Timbre organization, timbre and form

The objectives outlined in this submodule are focused on exploring and understanding the role of timbre in music composition. The first objective is to examine the diverse ways in which composers utilize timbre in their compositions, highlighting its significance as a creative element. The second objective aims to comprehend how timbre functions within the formal structure of a musical piece, emphasizing its impact on the overall organization and narrative of the composition. Lastly, this submodule aims to explore the interplay between timbre and other musical parameters, such as rhythm, melody, and harmony, to gain insight into how different elements interact and influence the compositional process. These objectives collectively seek to deepen students' understanding of timbre and its role in composition.

Topics & Resources

Harmony and timbre

Is there a line between harmony and timbre or are they part of the same thing?
How does timbre arise from harmony?

 

Key resources 

Additional Resources

  • Baillet, J., & Grisey, G. (2000). Fondements d’une écriture. L’Harmattan.

  • Drott, E. (2017). Saariaho, timbre, and tonality. In F. Wörner, U. Scheideler, & P. E. Rupprecht (Eds.), Tonality since 1950 (pp. 259–281). Steiner Verlag.

  • Fineberg, J. (2000). Guide to the basic concepts and techniques of spectral music. Contemporary Music Review, 19(2), 81–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494460000640271

  • Grisey, G., & Fineberg, J. (2000). Did you say spectral? Contemporary Music Review, 19(3), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494460000640311

  • Hervé, J.-L. (2009). Quatre Chants pour franchir le seuil. In B. Gilmore & R. Hirs (Eds.), Contemporary compositional techniques and OpenMusic (pp. 31–43). IRCAM-Centre Pompidou.

  • Hurel, P. (1991). "La musique spectrale... À terme!” English version—“Le phénomène sonore, un modèle pour la composition.” In J.-B. Barriere (Ed.), Le Timbre: Métaphore pour la composition. C. Bourgois/IRCAM.

  • Lelong, G., & Réby, A.-M. (Eds.). (2009). Écrits ou l’invention de la musique spectrale. Circuit, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.7202/038263ar

  • Moscovich, V. (1997). French spectral music: An introduction. Tempo, 200, 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0040298200048403

  • Pressnitzer, D., & McAdams, S. (2000). Acoustics, psychoacoustics and spectral music. Contemporary Music Review, 19(2), 33–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494460000640251

  • Saunders, R. (2016). Composition class by Rebecca Saunders. ManiFeste-2016.

  • Sullivan, T. (2008). Gérard Grisey’s Quatre Chants pour franchir le seuil: Spectral music on the threshold. University of Michigan.

 
 
 

Timbral structuring

How does timbre function as a form bearing element in music?

 

Key Resources

  • Bauer, A. (2001). Composing the sound Itself: Secondary parameters and structure in the music of Ligeti. Indiana Theory Review, 22(1), 37–64.

  • McAdams, S., & Saariaho, K. (1985). Qualities and functions of musical timbre. Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, 367–374.

Additional Resources

  • Barrett, N. (1999). Little animals: Compositional structuring processes. Computer Music Journal, 23(2), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1162/014892699559724

  • Lachenmann, H. (1996). Musik als existentielle Erfahrung: Schriften 1966-1995. Breitkopf & Härtel.

  • Lelong, G., & Réby, A.-M. (Eds.). (2008). Structuration des timbres dans la musique instrumentale. In Écrits ou l’invention de la musique spectrale. Musica Falsa.

  • Morrison, L. (2021). Encoding post-spectral sound: Kaija Saariaho’s early electronic music at IRCAM, 1982-87. Music Theory Online, 27(3). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.27.3.10

  • Roy, S. (1996). Form and referential citation in a work by Francis Dhomont. Organised Sound, 1(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355771896000155

  • Rudy, P. (2007). Timbral praxis: When a tree falls in the forest is it music? Organised Sound, 12(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355771807001641

  • Rutherford-Johnson, T. (2011). Patterns of shimmer: Liza Lim’s compositional ethnography. Tempo, 65(258), 2–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0040298211000349

  • Saunders, R. (2016). Lecture by Rebecca Saunders on Fury II. ManiFeste-2016.

  • Wessel, D. L. (1979). Timbre space as a musical control structure. Computer Music Journal, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/3680283

 
 
 

Timbral transformations

The use of timbre as a process.
Timbre as a relation to other form-bearing elements in music.

 

Key Resources

  • Boulez, P. (1987). Timbre and composition-timbre and language. Contemporary Music Review, 2(1), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494468708567057

  • Varèse, E., & Wen-Chung, C. (1966). The liberation of sound. Perspectives of New Music, 5(1), 11–19.

Additional Resources 

  • Anderson, J. (2010). Timbre, process and accords fixes: Dutilleux and his younger French contemporaries. Contemporary Music Review, 29(5), 447–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2010.589124

  • Iverson, J. J. (2009). Historical memory and György Ligeti’s sound-mass music 1958-1968 [PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin]. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/6905

  • Leydon, R. (2012). Clean as a whistle: Timbral trajectories and the modern musical sublime. Music Theory Online, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.18.2.4

  • Lim, L. (2012). Patterns of ecstasy. Darmstädter Beiträge Zur Neuen Musik, 21, 27–43.

  • McMullan-Glossop, E. (2017). Hues, tints, tones, and shades: Timbre as colour in the music of Rebecca Saunders. Contemporary Music Review, 36(6), 488–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2017.1452697

  • Murail, T. (2005). The revolution of complex sounds. Contemporary Music Review, 24(2–3), 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494460500154780

  • Rofe, M. (2017). Capturing time and giving it from: Nymphéa. In Kaija Saariaho: Visions, Narratives, Dialogues (pp. 81–105). Routledge.

  • Steinitz, R. (2003). György Ligeti: Music of the imagination. Faber and Faber.

  • Stiller, A. (2007). Where’s that sound coming from? : John Cage, George Crumb, and the world of timbre. In S. Bruns & O. Ben-Amots (Eds.), George Crumb and the alchemy of sound: Essays on his music (Vol. 64, pp. 72–73). Music Library Association.

  • Waters, S. (1994). Timbre composition: Ideology, metaphor and social process. Contemporary Music Review, 10(2), 129–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494469400640361

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions 

  • From the readings and your understanding of perception of timbral intervals and contours, and the possible musical operations on timbral patterns, what do you think is the role of timbre-based categorization and identification in music perception? What are the possibilities and limits in creating timbral scales and using them for musical structures?

Reading Response

  • Rebecca Saunders (1967-), Fury II (2009) score | recording | YouTube: (Ensemble Linea)
    In a departure from previous weeks, this reading response focuses on a lecture by Rebecca Saunders on her own composition, Fury II. You can comment on both the lecture and the composition, as well as the relationship between the two. What novel ideas about timbre does Saunders propose? Do the concepts expressed in the lecture help you to make sense of Fury II?

Analysis

  • Do a brief written analysis of a vocal or instrumental piece of your choosing, applying what you have learnt so far on timbre moving into the foreground of musical concern in the 19th and 20th centuries.

  • Huck Hodge, Aletheia for chamber ensemble (2010-11)
    One of the things I find interesting about Huck Hodge's writing is his ability to have instruments sit into a more composite timbre until special moments where they stick out without having to own a typical "soloist" role. Given that we've touched on how we use timbre to identify sound sources, listen to this piece (preferably without score and also without watching a video of people playing) and take note of how you hear these instruments interact over time. Where do you feel like instruments stand out on their own? In groups? As a part of a composite whole? If you get the chance to listen again, see if your observations change. If you decide to look at a score or watch a video on a repeat listen, what surprised you? What remained the same?

  • Composed and Performed by Sahba Motallebi https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D804WpC1SCE Composer website https://sahbamusic.com/
    Information on the instrument:
    Tar https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_(string_instrument) “It feels like the composer/performer, Sahba Motallebi, is using timbre and register to form various layers in her piece. And to me it is interesting to figure out how these timbral layers are formed and how they play a role in the overall form of the piece.” Prepare an “analysis/transcription/translation/representation” of this piece. Be prepared to share and discuss it in class.

  • Study Czernowin’s Sahaf from the perspective of timbre and write a short analytical essay (500–750 words). What kinds of timbral relationships are formed between the members of the quartet? What compositional techniques and strategies bring the timbral features of the diverse individual instruments of the quartet (saxophone, electric guitar, percussion, and piano) into communication with each other? Cite specific examples from the score by measure number in support of your conclusions.
    Chaya Czernowin, Sahaf (2008) score | recording (audio starts at 0:36) | YouTube (with scrolling score)

  • In a short essay (400-600 words), discuss Julia Wolfe’s Big Beautiful Dark and Scary from the perspective of timbre. How does timbre evolve over the course of the piece? What kinds of relationships exist between instruments, and how do they contribute to a sense of the ensemble’s overall sound? You can draw freely on the readings assigned this week or earlier in the course, or take an independent approach.
    Julia Wolfe (1958–), Big, Beautiful, Dark and Scary (sextet version, 2002) score | recording

Writing Assignment

  • Write a brief response essay (400–600 words) on Rebecca Leydon’s article on George Crumb’s Black Angels. Consider both Leydon’s theoretical approach and her analysis of “timbral trajectories” in Black Angels.

  • Write a short analytical essay on Saariaho’s Notes on Light, focusing on movement 3, “Awakening.” As in previous analysis essays, your primary focus should be on the dimensions of timbre and orchestration (though of course you’re welcome to discuss how these interact with other parameters). Optionally, you can draw on Saariaho’s essay “Timbre and Harmony” or compare her compositional approach in Notes on Light to a work of the 1980s like Nymphea.
    Kaija Saariaho (1952-), Notes on Light (2006) score | recordings: I II III IV V | program note

  • Write a short analytical essay (as usual, 400–600 words) on the first movement of Grisey’s Quatre Chants, focusing on timbral aspects of the work. Though you may refer to the discussions of pitch and rhythmic aspects of the movement in the articles below, it’s not required: the essential goal of this assignment is to consider the timbral effects that emerge from Grisey’s approach to orchestration.
    Grisey, Quatre Chants pour franchir le seuil (1998) score | recordings: Prélude: La mort de l’ange (“D’après Les heures à la nuit de Guez Ricord”) | Interlude: La mort de la civilisation (“D’après Les sarcophages égyptiens du Moyen Empire”) | Interlude: La mort de la voix (“D’après Erinna”) | Faux interlude: La mort de l’humanité (“D’après L’épopée de Gilgamesh”) | Berceuse

Central problem and goals: During sampling and remixing—common processes in many styles of popular music—musical excerpts often undergo significant timbral modification during their recontextualization and re-purposing. This sub-module provides resources and activities aimed at exploring the compositional processes behind these common musical occurrences and their results, focusing on timbre, instrumentation, orchestration, and texture. The materials in this sub-module also engage with the larger implications of how timbre influences composition in popular music, such as intellectual property litigation, the history of these practices, how a sample’s timbre (either original or transformed, including in a remix) may allude to a specific genre, and the cultural implications of the timbral transformation inherent in sampling and remixing.  

Keywords: timbral transformation, instrumentation, texture, popular music, sampling

This module explores sampling and remixing in popular music. Firstly, the history and evolution of these practices will be discussed to provide a contextual understanding. The module also aims to analyze the timbral transformations that occur when musical material is sampled or remixed, examining how these changes can result in functional reinterpretations of the original excerpts. Additionally, the larger implications of sampling and remixing in popular music, such as cultural, aesthetic, and legal aspects, will be explored. A key objective is to define what constitutes a musical sample and establish its significance in popular music production. Finally, the module seeks to equip learners with the ability to apply methods of timbral composition in popular music, allowing them to effectively manipulate and shape timbral elements in their own musical creations. By addressing these objectives, the module offers a comprehensive understanding of the artistic, technical, and ethical dimensions involved in the practice of sampling and remixing within the popular music landscape.

Topics & Resources

History of sampling & remixing in pop music

Historical developments and changes of sampling in popular music

 

Key resources 

Additional Resources

 
 
 

Defining a musical sample

What is a musical sample? What aesthetics and cultural connotations are associated with a sample?

 

Key resources:

Additional resources:

 
 
 

Copyright and intellectual property law of sampling

What are the laws governing copyright of sampled materials? What (part of the) materials are subject to copyright laws and what (part of the) materials are not?

 

Key resources:

  • Keller, D. (2008). The Musician as thief: Digital culture and copyright law. In P. Miller (Ed.), Sound unbound. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551%2Fmitpress%2F7723.003.0014

  • Kessler, S., Desalvo, R., & Ellis, S. (2016). Symposium panel: Bringing blurred lines into focus. Belmont Law Review, 3(1), Article 5.

Additional resources:

  • Falstrom, C. A. (1993). Thou shalt not steal: Grand Upright Music Ltd. V. Warner Bros. Records, Inc. And the future of digital sound sampling in popular music. Hastings LJ, 45, 359–381.

  • O’Brien, D., & Fitzgerald, B. (2006). Mashups, remixes and copyright Law. Internet Law Bulletin, 9(2), 17–19.

  • Schumacher, T. G. (1995). This is a sampling sport’: Digital sampling, rap music and the law in cultural production. Media, Culture & Society, 17(2), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/016344395017002006

 
 
 

Cultural and aesthetic implications of musical sampling and remixing

What are the aesthetic implications of sampled materials? How much of it is the same as the original and how much of it is different?

 

Key resources:

Additional resources:

 

Activities

Class activity/listening

  • Discussion question: what is a musical sample? In groups of 2-3 people, discuss this broad question and answer the following additional questions. Try to come up with a working definition of a musical sample as a group.

    • What structural musical features define a sample?

    • How does timbre contribute to this definition?

    • Which element(s) of the sample are commonly modified when they are repurposed/recontextualized/reused in a new context?

    • Can we preserve only the timbral dimension of a sample (be sure to define what this means within your group) and preserve its identity as that sample? Try to think of some examples.

    • What is "the sampling process" referred to by Rodgers (2004)?

    • How obvious does the sample need to be in order for it to be formally recognized as one? For instance, if a drumbeat is borrowed but re-orchestrated using different drum sounds and its tempo modulated to disguise its original context, would you still consider this a sample?

  • Compare Sister Sledge’s “He’s the Greatest Dancer” (1979) to Will Smith’s “Gettin’ Jiggy Wit It” (1997) and answer the following questions (recordings available here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDwutKpVyas and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3JcmQONgXJM):

    • Identify the sample that Will Smith uses in his later song.

    • How does he re-contextualize the sample into a new genre? What elements and processes of timbre and orchestration does he use to effectively repurpose the sample?

    • To what extent does the sample allude to 70s R&B/Disco in its new context? Explain why or why not. If you feel it substantially alludes to this earlier genre, what are the implications of this allusion?

    • How did Will Smith change the realization of the sample in terms of its textural stratification, its orchestration, and its spatialization?

    •   Compare the function(s) of the sample in the original and new contexts: has it changed? How?

    • Find another example of sampling in popular music (For example Madonna’s “Hung Up” and Abba’s “Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)) and perform a similar comparison on your two new songs.

  • Find a remix of a popular song (you will likely have the most luck finding an EDM remix) and compare it to its original, using techniques of popular music and timbre analysis to substantiate your comparison (e.g., Functional layer analysis, TOGE, spectrograms, etc.). Be sure to answer the following questions:

    • In what genre are each the remix and its original song? What timbral and orchestrational cues of these genera exist in the music?

    • What are the musical similarities between the two songs that allow you to identify them as two versions of the same work?

    • How has the remix artist modified the timbre, instrumentation, texture, and orchestration of elements from the original song? What new timbral elements do they incorporate and how do they interact with the re-purposed materials?

    • Does the timbral modification of original song materials coincide with their functional reinterpretation?

    • How do timbre and form intersect in both the original and remixed version? Compare your analytical findings.

Creative Project:

  • Create a short piece of music using a sample of your choosing from a musical work of your choice. Do your best to situate your composition within a new genre space compared to that of the song from which you draw your sample. Focus on the timbral and orchestration decisions you make in your composition process. In your submission, accompany your short piece with a written response that summarizes your approach to this task, answering the following questions:

    • What sample did you choose and why?

    • How did you modify the sample in your composition? Did you make any substantial timbral modifications to the sample in order to situate it within a new genre context?

    • To what extent did you functionally re-purpose your sample in your new composition? What role does the sample play in your piece compared to its role in the original song?

Discussion Question:

  • In the chopped and screwed musical genre, samples may be timbrally modified to the extreme. How important is it to preserve the original identity of the sample? What are the structural and cultural roles of samples in hip hop music? What is the role of distortion in sampling? Why might an artist choose to sample in a way that preserves the timbral characteristics of the original sample over distorting the sound?

    • Listen to “Southside Groovin” by the chopped and screwed genre originator, DJ Screw (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMvaxNhh44k&ab_channel=Sixas394). Do your best to identify the chopped and screwed elements of this song. What procedure(s) do you believe DJ Screw used to modify the timbres of these samples? Do you recognize the samples? How do these timbral modifications affect the overall aesthetic of the song? How do they interact with the other musical elements within the song (lean on TOGE terminology and functional layer analysis to help you answer this question)? How do the chopped and screwed samples function within the music?

  • How does sampling in popular music differ from sampling in electroacoustic music?

  • Put yourself in the shoes of one of the musicologists who testified in the Thicke v Gaye (Blurred Lines vs. Got to Give it Up) in the copyright infringement lawsuit from 2015–2018, cited in the 2016 Kessler, Desalvo, & Ellis Symposium Panel discussion (a quick summary of the case can be found at these sources: https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/case-study/blurred-lines-copyright, https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/robin-thicke-pharrell-williams-blurred-lines-copyright-suit-final-5-million-dollar-judgment-768508/, and https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/how-similar-is-blurred-lines-778635/). Note that the court did not have access to the recordings of each song—only lead sheets—because Marvin Gaye’s children do not own the recordings. With a partner, analyze both the songs in question, using the recordings and answer the following questions:

    • To what extent do you agree with the verdict of this case (I.e., that Blurred Lines infringes on Got to Give it Up)? Why or why not?

    • How do you think having access to the recordings—and so, access to timbral information—would have changed the verdict of this case (if at all)? Why or why not?

    • Are there specific timbral, orchestrational, or textural similarities between these two songs (esp. their structural elements)? Conversely, do you notice significant timbral variation on similar rhythms or melodies between these two songs? What are the effects of the timbral similarities and differences? Do you believe they would be enough to substantiate a copyright infringement claim?

    • How do you think the evaluation of each song’s supposed music notation influenced the verdict?

    • What do you think of copyright infringement in the music industry? Can an individual artist own a sound or a melody? Should they be able to? How do we parse influence from infringement? What role do timbre and orchestration play in all of this?

Central problem and goals: Electroacoustic music has been an important addition to contemporary composition. It adds new varieties of timbre, as well as different means of achieving timbral differences from acoustic instruments. With this, the possibilities in composition have changed, and it also calls for new techniques in composition, as well as new ways of thinking about timbre.  

Keywords: unfamiliar timbre, timbre transformation, creation of novel timbres

The objectives of this module revolve around the exploration and understanding of the contributions made by electroacoustic techniques in expanding the possibilities for timbral manipulations in composition. The module seeks to investigate the various ways in which composers have utilized electroacoustic tools to create intricate and diverse timbral textures in their works. Additionally, it aims to provide insights into the underlying principles of perception and cognition that shape the possibilities and limitations of these timbral processes. By delving into the cognitive and perceptual foundations, students will develop a deeper understanding of how electroacoustic techniques can shape and manipulate timbre in composition. This module serves as a platform for exploring the rich tapestry of electroacoustic possibilities, broadening the horizons of timbral expression in music composition.

Topics & Resources

Timbre synthesis

What are the new ways in which novel timbres can be created?
Are there ways in which familiar timbres can be created from novel means?
What are some possibilities and limitations of these new timbres?

 

Key resources:

  • Donin, N. (2016). Sonic imprints: Instrumental resynthesis in contemporary composition. In G. Borio (Ed.), Musical listening in the age of technological reproduction (pp. 345–364). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315596969

Additional resources:

  • Goodchild, M., Wild, J., & McAdams, S. (2019). Exploring emotional responses to orchestral gestures. Musicae Scientiae, 23(1), 25–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864917704033

  • Johnson, R. (2011). The standard, power, and color model of instrument combination in Romantic-era symphonic works. Empirical Musicology Review, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.18061/1811/49759

  • Kendall, R. A., & Carterette, E. C. (1993). Identification and blend of timbres as a basis for orchestration. Contemporary Music Review, 9(1–2), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494469300640341

  • Read, G. (2004). Orchestral combinations: The science and art of instrumental tone-color. Scarecrow Press.

  • Sandell, G. J. (1995). Roles for spectral centroid and other factors in determining" blended" instrument pairings in orchestration. Music Perception, 13(2), 209–246. https://doi.org/10.2307/40285694

  • Tardieu, D., & McAdams, S. (2012). Perception of dyads of impulsive and sustained instrument sounds. Music Perception, 30(2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2012.30.2.117

  • Touizrar, M., & McAdams, S. (2016). Perceptual facets of orchestration in The Angel of Death by Roger Reynolds: Timbre and auditory grouping. Analyse Musicale et Perception: Actes Des Journées d’Analyse Musicale.

 

Timbre in orchestration

How does instrumental timbre play a role in orchestration?
How can we incorporate a discussion of timbre into a discussion of orchestration?

Key resources:

Additional resources:

  • Dolan, E. I. (n.d.). Impossible Gluck, or the future of timbre.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2006). The idea of timbre in the age of Haydn [Dissertation, Cornell University]. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/3227

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013a). Haydn, orchestration, and re-orchestration. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre. Cambridge University Press.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013b). Instruments and aesthetics. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre (pp. 1–22). Cambridge University Press.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013c). The birth of orchestration. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre (pp. 53–89). Cambridge University Press.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013d). The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre. Cambridge University Press.

  • Lelong, G., & Réby, A.-M. (Eds.). (2008). Structuration des timbres dans la musique instrumentale. In Écrits ou l’invention de la musique spectrale. Musica Falsa.

  • Mirka, D. (2001). To cut the Gordian knot: The timbre system of Krzysztof Penderecki. Journal of Music Theory, 45(2), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.2307/3653444

  • Stankis, J. E. (2015). Maurice Ravel’s “color counterpoint” through the perspective of Japonisme. Music Theory Online, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.21.1.7

  • Strauchen-Scherer, E. B. (2018). Technology and timbre: Features of the changing instrumental soundscape of the long nineteenth century. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre (Vol. 14, pp. 406–432). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.24

Activities

Analysis

  • Analyze or create a short piece that explores some of the problems and possibilities digital sound poses for traditional theories of musical timbre.

    • Eleanor Hovda, Lemniscates String Quartet, 1988
      Choose some 1-minute segment of this piece and represent the timbre using whatever means you come up with. Be prepared to present your representation to the class. Discuss the timbral functions in this piece of music.

    • Karlheinz Stockhausen, Stimmung
      A version of this piece for 6 voices, electronics(amplifiers, microphones, etc.), loudspeakers, and tablelamp by the Hillier Ensemble is posted at Blackboard. We will use this version for consistency sake.
      There are 51 sections, in the performance and the score. The score-version 24.5-will be on reserve in the Music Library. Reading to prep as a launching point for listening + analysis:
      http://homepage.eircom.net/~braddellr/stock/index.htm

  • Your task is to choose one (or more, if you want to do a comparison), of the "models" or sections and "take account" of the timbral features of the music.

Listen and respond

  • Describe each of the pieces below, including exceptional moments or moments that grab your attention. Be sure to include the hyperlink you use to access it and a time stamp when relevant. You can search for additional information online to supplement your observations.

    • Étude aux chemins de fer, Shaeffer

    • Symphonie pour un homme seul, Shaeffer

    • Etude I, Boulez

    • Konkrete Etüde, Stockhausen

    • Poème électronique, Varese

Reading response

  • Comment on the assigned article by Michael Clarke in a brief response essay (400–600 words). What do you find useful, informative, or compelling about the author’s analysis? Are there any aspects of the article that you would critique or significant features of the music that go unaddressed? Does the author’s methodology effectively engage with the work in question?

3.3 Timbre and orchestration

This module offers a comprehensive exploration of the practice of orchestration and its connection to timbre. Through this module, students gain the necessary skills to analyze orchestration techniques, understanding how different instruments and their combinations contribute to the overall timbral palette. The module dives into the intricacies of creating and manipulating timbres through orchestration, exploring how specific instrument choices, voicings, and techniques shape the sonic landscape of a composition. Students also delve into the theories of orchestration, studying the works and insights of renowned composers and orchestrators. Through practical exercises, listening examples, and analysis of orchestral scores, students develop a deep understanding of the expressive possibilities and technical considerations of orchestration.

Central problem and goal: Long dismissed as a "secondary parameter", timbre has become increasingly central to contemporary musical practice and scholarship. This sub-module will attempt to lay the groundwork for a unified theory of musical timbre and a psychological foundation for a theory of orchestration practice. It will confront the challenges of conceptualizing timbre and orchestration through analysis of musical works, study of theories and treatises, and discussion of recent research in timbre.

 Keywords: analysis of timbre, analysis of orchestration

The objectives of this module revolve around developing a comprehensive understanding of orchestration practices and their connection to perceptual principles. By exploring a wide range of musical works, students will analyze successful orchestration examples and connect them to treatises and theories that form the foundation of orchestration practices. The module also aims to extend the research of timbre into the realm of orchestration, enabling students to delve deeper into the relationship between timbre and instrument choice, voicing, and other orchestral techniques. By achieving these objectives, students will gain a profound understanding of how orchestration is rooted in perceptual principles, while also expanding their knowledge of timbre and its role in creating compelling orchestrations.

Topics & Resources

Perceptual processes in orchestration

How do perceptual processes function in successful orchestration?

 

Key resources

  • Goodchild, M., & McAdams, S. (2018). Perceptual processes in orchestration. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre (Vol. 14). Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.10

  • McAdams, S., Goodchild, M., & Soden, C. V. (n.d.). A taxonomy of orchestral grouping effects derived from principles of auditory perception.

Additional resources

  • Barrett, N. (1999). Little animals: Compositional structuring processes. Computer Music Journal, 23(2), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1162/014892699559724

  • Brittan, F. (2011). On microscopic hearing: Fairy magic, natural science, and the Scherzo Fantastique. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 64(3), 527–600. https://doi.org/10.1525/jams.2011.64.3.527

  • Chion, M. (1994). The three listening modes. In C. Gorbman (Trans.), Audio-Vision. Columbia University Press.

  • Chion, M. (2011a). Dissolution of the notion of timbre. Differences, 22(2–3), 235–239. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1428906

  • Chion, M. (2011b). Let’s have done with the notion of “noise.” Differences, 22(2–3), 240–248. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1428906a

  • Chow, R. (2019). Listening after “acousmaticity”: Notes on a transdisciplinary problematic. In J. A. Steintrager & R. Chow (Eds.), Sound Objects (pp. 113–129). Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478002536-006

  • Cogan, R. (1984). Introduction. In New images of musical sound (pp. 1–19). Harvard University Press.

  • Cogan, R., & Escot, P. (1976). Sonic design: The nature of sound and music. Prentice Hall.

  • Cramer, A. (2002). Schoenberg’s Klangfarbenmelodie: A Principle of Early Atonal Harmony. Music Theory Spectrum, 24(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1525/mts.2002.24.1.1

  • Deliège, I. (1989). A perceptual approach to contemporary musical forms. Contemporary Music Review, 4(1), 213–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494468900640301

  • Dubnov, S., McAdams, S., & Reynolds, R. (2006). Structural and affective aspects of music from statistical audio signal analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57(11), 1526–1536. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20429

  • Erickson, R. (1975). Sound structure in music. Univ of California Press.

  • Ferrer, R. F. (2011). Timbral environments: An ecological approach to the cognition of timbre. Empirical Musicology Review, 6, 64–74. https://doi.org/10.18061/1811/51213

  • Iverson, P. (1995). Auditory stream segregation by musical timbre: Effects of static and dynamic acoustic attributes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21(4), 751–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.21.4.751

  • Lachenmann, H. (2003). Hearing [Hören] is defenseless—Without listening [Hören]: On possibilities and difficulties. Circuit: Musiques Contemporaines, 13(2), 27–50. https://doi.org/10.7202/902272ar

  • Landy, L. (2007). Understanding the art of sound organization. Mit Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/7472.001.0001

  • Lavengood, M. (2017). A new approach to the analysis of timbre. PhD diss. City University of New York. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/2188/

  • Moscovich, V. (1997). French spectral music: An introduction. Tempo, 200, 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0040298200048403

  • Paraskeva, S., & McAdams, S. (1997). Influence of timbre, presence/absence of tonal hierarchy and musical training on the perception of musical tension and relaxation schemas. International Conference on Mathematics and Computing. https://sites.music.mcgill.ca/orchestration/files/2014/10/Paraskeva_1997_ICMC.pdf

  • Pressnitzer, D., & McAdams, S. (2000). Acoustics, psychoacoustics and spectral music. Contemporary Music Review, 19(2), 33–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494460000640251

  • Schaeffner, A. (2020). Origins of instruments in the human body. In A. Schaeffner, R. Taylor, A. Lih, & E. Lih (Eds.), The origin of musical instruments: An ethnological introduction to the history of instrumental music (pp. 1–21). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315554921

  • Schoenberg, A. (1983). Chords with six or more tones. In R. Carter (Trans.), Theory of Harmony (pp. 418–422). University of California Press.

  • Steege, B. (2012). Refunctioning the ear. In Helmholtz and the modern listener (pp. 43–79). Cambridge University Press.  https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139057745.004

  • Sterne, J., & Tara, R. (2011). The poetics of signal processing. A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, 22(2–3), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1428834

  • Teodorescu-Ciocanea, L. (2003). Timbre versus spectralism. Contemporary Music Review, 22(1–2), 87–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/0749446032000134751

  • Thompson, M. (2017). The parasite and its mileau: Noise, materiality, affectivity. In Beyond Unwanted Sound: Noise, Affect, and Aesthetic Moralism (pp. 41–86). Bloomsbury Academic.

  • Touizrar, M., & McAdams, S. (2016). Perceptual facets of orchestration in The Angel of Death by Roger Reynolds: Timbre and auditory grouping. Analyse Musicale et Perception: Actes Des Journées d’Analyse Musicale. https://www.mcgill.ca/mpcl/files/mpcl/touizrar_mcadams_actes_jam_2016_en.pdf

  • Varèse, E., & Wen-Chung, C. (1966). The liberation of sound. Perspectives of New Music, 5(1), 11–19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/832385

  • Wessel, D. L. (1979). Timbre space as a musical control structure. Computer Music Journal 3(2), 45–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/3680283

 
 
 

Timbre in orchestration

How does instrumental timbre play a role in orchestration?
How can we incorporate a discussion of timbre into a discussion of orchestration?

 

Key Resources

Additional Resources

  • Dolan, E. I. (n.d.). Impossible Gluck, or the future of timbre.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2006). The idea of timbre in the age of Haydn [Dissertation, Cornell University]. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/3227

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013a). Haydn, orchestration, and re-orchestration. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre. Cambridge University Press.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013b). Instruments and aesthetics. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre (pp. 1–22). Cambridge University Press.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013c). The birth of orchestration. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre (pp. 53–89). Cambridge University Press.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2013d). The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre. Cambridge University Press.

  • Lelong, G., & Réby, A.-M. (Eds.). (2008). Structuration des timbres dans la musique instrumentale. In Écrits ou l’invention de la musique spectrale. Musica Falsa.

  • Mirka, D. (2001). To cut the Gordian knot: The timbre system of Krzysztof Penderecki. Journal of Music Theory, 45(2), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.2307/3653444

  • Stankis, J. E. (2015). Maurice Ravel’s “color counterpoint” through the perspective of Japonisme. Music Theory Online, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.21.1.7

  • Strauchen-Scherer, E. B. (2018). Technology and timbre: Features of the changing instrumental soundscape of the long nineteenth century. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre (Vol. 14, pp. 406–432). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.24

 
 
 

Analysis of orchestration practices

How can orchestration practices/techniques be analyzed?

 

Key Resources

Additional Resources 

  • DeThorne, J. (2014). Colorful plasticity and equalized transparency: Schoenberg’s orchestrations of Bach and Brahms. Music Theory Spectrum, 36(1), 121–145. https://doi.org/10.1093/mts/mtu003

    Kreuzer, G. (2018). Gong. In Curtain, gong, steam: Wagnerian technologies of nineteenth-century opera (pp. 109–161). Univ of California Press.

    Laursen, L. (2016). Orchestration strategies in Simon Steen-Andersen’s Double Up. Music Theory Online, 22(3). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.22.3.5

    Peattie, T. (2011). The expansion of symphonic space in Mahler’s first symphony. Journal of the Royal Musical Association, 136(1), 73–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/02690403.2011.562721

    Schonken, P. A. (2015). Towards a generalised theory of orchestration practice: A grounded theory approach [Dissertation, Stellenbosch University]. https://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/98072

    Thomas, J. (1981). The use of color in three chamber works of the twentieth century. Indiana Theory Review, 4(3), 24–40. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24045949

    Williams, K. (2012). Improvisation as composition: Fixity of form and collaborative composition in Duke Ellington’s Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue. Jazz Perspectives, 6(1–2), 223–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/17494060.2012.729712

 
 
 

Orchestration treatises

A list of historical and modern orchestration treatises.

 

Key Resources 

  • Adler, S. (2002). The study of orchestration (3rd ed.). WW Norton and Company.

  • Rimsky-Korsakov, N. (1912). Principles of orchestration (E. Agate, Trans.). Kalmus Orchestra Scores Inc.

Additional Resources 

  • Belkin, A. (2008). Artistic orchestration (Vol. 3). https://www.dolmetsch.com/O.pdf

  • Berlioz, H. (2002). The orchestra. In H. Macdonald (Trans.), Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes (pp. 319–335). Cambridge University Press.

  • Brant, H. (2009). Textures and timbres: An orchestrator’s handbook. Carl Fischer Music.

  • Kennan, K., & Grantham, D. (1997). The technique of orchestration (Vol. 1). Prentice Hall.

  • Piston, W. (1955). Orchestration. Norton.

  • Prout, E. (2009). The orchestra-Volume II-Orchestral combination (Vol. 2). King Press.

  • Read, G. (2003). Orchestral combinations: The science and art of instrumental tone-color. Scarecrow Press.

  • Rimsky-Korsakov, N. (1918). Composition of the orchestra. In E. Agate (Trans.), Principles of orchestration (pp. 97–118). Édition Russe de Musique.

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions 

  • Choose one or two of the readings provided, or any others you think demonstrates the concept, discuss the psychological foundations needed for the development of a theory of orchestration practice that is grounded in auditory perceptual and cognitive processes. Use auditory grouping principles as a starting point

Listen and respond

  • What roles do instrumentation play in each of these pieces? To what extent do they achieve their orchestration goals? To what extent is this achieved through means that are not commonplace in orchestration practices of that time and how are these accomplished?

    • Hector Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique Op. 14, mvts. iv/v (1830) - score | audio (iv/v),

    • Harold in Italy op. 16 (1834) - score | audio

    • Wagner's re-orchestration of Beethoven Symphony No. 9, i (1824) - score | audio

    • Camille Saint-Sa√´n, Piano concerto No. 5, ii (1896) - score | video

  • Describe each of the pieces below, including exceptional moments or moments that grab your attention. Be sure to include the hyperlink you use to access it and a time stamp when relevant. You can search for additional information online to supplement your observations.

    • Boulanger, Elle √©tait descendue au bas de la prairie Clairi√®res dans le ciel

    • Debussy, Danseueses de delphes

    • Manaka Kataoka and Yasuaki Iwata, Legend of Zelda: Daruk's Theme and Mipha's Theme

  • Choose 2 pieces and discuss the following:
    Instrumentation on written score vs instrumentation heard aurally;
    Form as it relates to changes in texture, instrumentation, and timbre;
    Markedness and phenomenological moments, and how they apply to form, function, texture, and timbre to create meaning.
    Ravel, Bolero

    • Crumb, Black Angels, I

    • Xenakis, Metastasis

    • Whitacre, Sleep

    • Ran, Hyperbolae

Reading response

  • Roger Reynolds (1934-), The Angel of Death (1998-2001) score (section S only) | recording (section S starts at 16:57)
    Write a brief response essay (400-600 words) on the assigned article by Touizrar and McAdams. Note that you don't need to summarize the whole of the article: your response can focus on selected examples or the overall methodology. Listening on your own is essential: does your own hearing of these excerpts match the interpretations proposed in the article?

Analysis

  • Choose one of the three movements of Varèse’s Octandre and write an analytical essay (400–600 words) discussing the timbral relationships you hear in the movement and how they contribute to local orchestral effects and/or a larger sense of form.
    Edgard Varèse (1883–1965), Octandre (1923) score | recordings I II III

Central problem and goals: What influence does the conductor of an ensemble have over the timbres it produces? Although the orchestration of a piece is established by the composer, the conductor (and/or ensemble members) may influence and/or interpret such orchestration by modifying elements such as balance and dynamics, articulations, etc., which affect and provide nuance to the timbre(s) produced by the ensemble. This module approaches such interpretive decisions through the lens of conducting technique and performance practice, emphasizing the use of TOGE principles to describe their effects.

Keywords: interpretive decisions, TOGE, orchestration principles

The objectives of this module encompass the interpretation and analysis of orchestration in ensemble performances, both from the perspective of performers and through the examination of recorded performances. Students will develop skills in interpreting and understanding the effects of interpretive decisions on the overall orchestration of a piece. Additionally, the module delves into the discussion of timbral features of ensembles, exploring how elements such as balance, intonation, and room acoustics impact the resulting timbral qualities. Students will also identify and analyze how performance practices, including aesthetic and stylistic norms in conducting and ensemble leadership, shape the timbres produced by vocal and instrumental combinations. By achieving these objectives, students gain a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of orchestration in ensemble performances, and how various factors influence the timbral outcomes. This module provides a platform for critical analysis and thoughtful exploration of the intricate relationship between performance, timbre, and ensemble interpretation.

Topics & Resources

TOGE

Orchestral grouping effects.

 

Key resources 

Additional Resources

  • McAdams, S., Goodchild, M., & Soden, K. (2022a). A taxonomy of orchestral grouping effects derived from principles of auditory perception. Music Theory Online, 28(3). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.28.3.6

 
 
 

Aesthetic and stylistic norms in conducting

Performance practices and stylistic norms in conducting

 

Key Resources

  • Dolan, E. (2013). Instruments and aesthetics. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre (pp. 1–22). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139235976

  • Green, E. A. H., & Malko, N. 1883-1961. (1975). Psychological implications inherent in the score. In The conductor and his score. Prentice-Hall.

Additional Resources

  • Dolan, E. (2013). The idea of timbre. In The orchestral revolution: Haydn and the technologies of timbre (pp. 53–89). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139235976

  • Green, E. A. H., & Malko, N. 1883-1961. (1975). Imagination, interpretation, and memorization. In The conductor and his score. Prentice-Hall.

  • Hunsberger, D., & Ernst, R. (1992). The art of conducting (A. Schindler, Ed.). McGraw-Hill.

  • Scherchen, H. 1891-1966., & Xenakis, I. 1922-2001. (1986). La Direction d’orchestre. Actes Sud.

  • Strauchen-Scherer, E. B. (2020). Technology and timbre: Features of the changing instrumental soundscape of the long ninetheenth century. In A. Rehding & E. Dolan (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre (pp. 404–432). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.24

  • Walker, M. J. (2013). The art of interpretation of band music. GIA Publications.

 
 
 

Ensemble balance and tone

Understanding instrumental timbre and practical functions in ensemble balance

 

Key resources:

  • Boulez, P. (1987). Timbre and composition ‐ timbre and language. Contemporary Music Review, 2(1), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494468708567057

  • Hunsberger, D., & Ernst, R. (1992). Conducting accomplishments. In The art of conducting. McGraw-Hill.

  • Reich, S. (1990). On the size and seating of an orchestra (from “Some thoughts about performance”). Contemporary Music Review, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/07494469200640221

Additional resources:

  • Cypress, R. (2015). Timbre, Expression, and Combination Keyboard Instruments: Miclchmeyer’s Art of Veränderung. Keyboard Perspectives, 8, 43–69.

  • Hunsberger, D., & Ernst, R. (1992). Interpretation. In The art of conducting. McGraw-Hill.

  • Koechlin, C. (2006). The balance of sonorities: Volume and intensity from volume I, chapter II of “Traité de l’orchestration.” In P. Mathews (Ed.), Orchestration: An Anthology of Writings (pp. 139–146). Taylor & Francis.

  • Loughridge, D. (2021). Listening to the effects of organ stops, violin mutes, and piano pedals ca. 1650–1800. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.16

  • Nuono, G., Cont, A., Carpentier, G., & Harvey, J. (2009). Making an orchestra speak. Sound and Music Computing. https://doi.org/hal-00839067

  • Rehding, A. (2021). Timbre/Techne. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre (p. 0). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.31

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions 

  • How do dynamics and balance affect ensemble’s timbre, if at all? How might a conductor (or the members of the ensemble) make use of principles of balance, dynamics, and articulation to encourage blending or segregation? Use terminology and concepts from the TOGE toolkit in your response. How might these decisions vary between types of ensembles (e.g., full Romantic orchestra vs. Children's choir vs. Contemporary trio, etc.)?

    • Related: How can we specifically and effectively characterize an ensemble’s timbre(s)? What does it mean to imagine/call to mind the timbre of an orchestral ensemble, wind band, string quartet, rock band, etc.?

  • What is the difference between balance from an orchestrational point of view and balance from a conductor’s/musical interpreter’s/performer’s perspective?

  • •What does it mean for an ensemble to play in tune? Use your knowledge of acoustics to support your response. How might the acoustic space in which an ensemble is playing affect the intonation of the ensemble (including the instruments themselves—rely on your classmates for their expertise in the intonation of instruments you don’t play)? To what extent do changes in intonation affect ensemble timbre? What are some typical intonation decisions that conductors ask of their players/singers (e.g. how fifths and thirds are tuned)?

Group Activity

  • With a group of 2-3 of your peers, plan to record a short, simple piece of ensemble music based on the instruments you all play (this could be as simple as “Happy Birthday” or another easy tune arranged for your ensemble). Choose 3 contrasting acoustic spaces for your recording. Record your piece in each of the different environments under two conditions: (1) without accounting for the space you’re in and (2) doing your best to adapt your ensemble’s playing to the space. Use your best musical judgement to decide how to adapt to this space: it may require you to listen back to ther recording a couple of times. **If you play a non-portable instrument, like the piano, you may artificially induce different room acoustic properties using a DAW post-recording. If you play a more portable secondary instrument, it is highly recommended you use that instead** Incorporating TOGE terminology, describe the timbral effects that the space had on your ensemble’s recording in the first condition. What changes did you and your ensemble members make to adapt to the space? Why did you make them and what was the timbral result? Submit your responses in written format.

  • Alternatively: In a DAW of your choice (free ones include Reaper, Audacity, and Garage Band if you have a Mac), digitally alter the apparent digital space in which a chamber or small-ensemble popular music recording has been created by adding or changing the wet/dry signal, adding an impulse response effect, changing the reverb/echo levels, etc. Take note of how this affects the balance and blend of the instruments (I.e., what instruments are covered and how? Which stand out more clearly? How blended are the sounds as a result of your changes?). Use TOGE terminology to describe the timbral effects that you perceive.

Listening and analysis

  • Choose 2-3 different recordings of the same piece of music for any ensemble. The recordings should feature different performers (including the conductor, if applicable). For the sake of time, do your best to choose a piece that is no longer than 10 minutes in duration. Alternatively, you may choose an excerpt from a longer piece that is up to 10 minutes in length. Then, follow these directions and answer the following questions:

    • Listen to each recording 2-3 times in succession, paying special attention to the balance decisions made by the performers (and/or conductor). https://youtube.com/watch?v=yoHDrzw-RPg

    • Before beginning any analysis, come up with a working definition of balance (you may, of course, draw from other sources such as the Grove dictionary).

    • Are there any moments of remarkable difference in balance (I.e., which instruments are more prominent/foregrounded, and which are more in the background?) across your recordings? How does this affect the overall timbre of these moments? How does this affect the blend? Use TOGE vocabulary to describe how you perceive the timbral effects at these moments.

    • Are there moments where the balance and blend are very similar/almost identical across the recordings? Use TOGE vocabulary to describe you perceive the timbral effects at these moments.

    • To what extent do you believe that the orchestration of the piece suggests or encourages certain ensemble balance decisions/results?

    • Based on your analysis of these recordings, to what extent do you believe that balance affects timbre in ensemble performances? Why or why not?

  • How do you think the space in which the piece is recorded affects the timbral effects (if any) created by balance decisions?

Timbre and Orchestration Resource
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Module II: Analysis of Timbre
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20th and 21st Century Analysis: Timbre, Orchestration, and Genre Since 1920