Module I: Defining Timbre

Teaching Timbre Topics
Written By Timbre and Orchestration Resource

Teaching and Learning | Teaching Timbre Topics | Module I

Teaching Timbre Topics

About these modules

Modules created by: Lena Heng and Kelsey Lussier
Edited by: Stephen McAdams, Bob Hasegawa, Kit Soden
Web version designed by Kit Soden and built by Mitra Khodadadi
More info at the Teaching Timbre Topics project can be found here.

Timbre is a foundational aspect of hearing, and it is fundamental to all sounds, and by extension, all music. It has, however, often stood at the periphery of the aspects of music we study and talk about. It is difficult to describe, it is complex to untangle, it is too complicated to understand. But this is also fortunately, gradually changing. Timbre studies is an emerging field, there is an increasing interest and new breakthroughs in timbre related topics. ! 

Acknowledgements

These modules have been created from course syllabi generously shared with the Teaching Timbre Topics Team by Jennifer Beavers, Landon Morrison, Robert Hasegawa, Stephen McAdams, Judy Lochhead, Emily Dolan, Megan Lavengood, and Lindsey Reymore & Matthew Zeller. Many of these syllabi are available on ACTOR’s Timbre and Orchestration Resource website.
Thank you all for your contributions!

Module I: Defining Timbre

General goals for this module:  

  1. To provide resources, central topics, and tasks/activities that can be used to help students devise working definitions of timbre that are relevant to the multiple sub-disciplinary stakeholders of timbre research. Such definitions can then be expanded upon and applied in Modules II and III. 

  2. To demonstrate the inter-disciplinary, multi-valent nature of timbre by identifying and exploring the multiple possible perspectives from which it is necessary to define timbre 

The following resources, topics, objectives, and activities are divided into three broad topical approaches to defining timbre, including how we listen to timbre, how we produce timbres and tones, and how we describe timbres. Each broad approach is comprised of sub-modules that focus on specific topics relevant to these broader categories. For instance, the How We Listen category includes sub-modules focused on foundational and historical approaches to timbre, timbre perception and cognition, cultural listening perspectives, and psychoacoustics. Similarly, the Timbre Production section of this document contains sub modules pertaining to tone vs. timbre and timbre expression and communication. Finally, the Timbre Description section includes one sub-module on the question of “what is timbre?”.   

1.1 How We Listen

Many factors play a role in defining how we hear and describe timbre. While there are physical acoustical aspects to a sound, auditory processing mechanisms shape the way listeners conceptualize timbre. This module covers foundational texts that play a role in defining how we look at timbre, introduces physical and psychophysical aspects of timbre, the perception and cognition of timbre, and touches on how enculturation and learning play a role in shaping listening. 

Keywords: Physical aspects of sound, psychophysical aspects of sound, auditory processing mechanisms, perceptual representation of sounds, listening and enculturation. 

1.1.1 Foundational texts, historical and current definitions of timbre

Central problem and goals: This sub-module explores some historical and foundational texts that contribute to the way we look at, define, and understand timbre.  

This sub-module lays the groundwork for thinking about timbre and provides the basis and context for other aspects of timbre studies. 

Keywords: timbre research, timbre studies, sound studies. 

In this section, we explore the foundational texts that marked the beginning of "timbre studies". This part of the course will introduce us to seminal works, providing a deeper understanding of the origins and evolution of this intriguing discipline. 

Within this section, we will also grapple with the complexities, challenges, and issues inherent in defining timbre. We will dissect its multifaceted nature, examine the diversity of interpretations across different sub-disciplines, and aim for a more nuanced comprehension of timbre, its perception, and its role in our musical experience. 

Additionally, we'll scrutinize the difficulties that surface in timbre research. From the challenges of methodology to the limitations of analysis, we will uncover the intricacies and hurdles intrinsic to the study of this complex element of music. 

Topics & Resources

Some foundational texts: the history of timbre research and definition

This topic includes some fundamental historical and modern writings on timbre research and definition. 

 

Key Resources

  • Chion, M. (2011). Dissolution of the notion of timbre.

  • Differences, 22(2–3), 235–239. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1428906

  • Fales, C. (2002). The paradox of timbre. Ethnomusicology, 46(1), 56–95. https://doi.org/10.2307/852808

  • Helmholtz, H. L. (1948). Chapter II: On the composition of vibrations. In A. J. Ellis (Trans.), The sensations of tone: As a physiological basis for the theory of music (pp. 103–119). P. Smith.

  • Risset, J.-C., & Wessel, D. L. (1999). Exploration of timbre by analysis and synthesis. In The psychology of music (pp. 113–169). Elsevier.

  • Slawson, W. (1981). The color of sound: A theoretical study in musical timbre. Music Theory Spectrum, 3, 132–141. https://doi.org/10.2307/746139

Additional resources:

  • Boulez, P. (1987). Timbre and composition-timbre and language. Contemporary Music Review, 2(1), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494468708567057

  • Landy, L. (2007). Understanding the art of sound organization. MIT Press.

 
 
 

Issues in timbre definition

This topic covers key ideas about and questions of the common methodologies used in timbre studies. 

  • The definition of timbre is complex and varies across sub-disciplines. In order to better understand what timbre is, we must first understand the history of timbre studies across sub-disciplines, examining their potential to coalesce into a “unified theory of timbre” 

 

Key resources:

  • Chion, M. (2011). Dissolution of the Notion of Timbre. Differences, 22(2–3), 235–239.

  • Fink, R., Wallmark, Z., & Latour, M. (Eds.). (2018). Introduction—Chasing the dragon: In search of tone in popular music. In The Relentless Pursuit of Tone: Timbre in Popular Music (pp. 1–17). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199985227.001.0001

  • Krumhansl, C. (1989). Why is Musical Timbre So Hard to Understand? In S. Nielzén & O. Olsson (Eds.), Structure and Perception of Electroacoustic Sound and Music (Vol. 846, pp. 43–53). Excerpta Medica.

  • Schaeffer’s TARTYP. (n.d.). Retrieved July 22, 2022, from http://www.prisedesoncreative.com/fr/

  • Siedenburg, K., & McAdams, S. (2017). Four Distinctions for the Auditory “Wastebasket” of Timbre. Frontiers in Psychology, 8 (1747). https://doi.org/doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01747

  • Smalley, D. (1994). Defining Timbre—Refining Timbre. Contemporary Music Review, 10(2), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494469400640281

Additional resources:

  • Hajda, J. M., Kendall, R. A., Carterette, E. C., & Harshberger, M. L. (1997). Methodological Issues in Timbre Research. In I. Deliège & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Perception and Cognition of Music (pp. 253–306). Psychology Press.

  • McAdams, S. (2018). What is Timbre? vs. What Can We Do with Timbre? Picking the Right Questions. Video keynote from Timbre 2018: Timbre is a Many-Splendored Thing. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYlryLxJZqw

  • Rousseau, J.-J. (n.d.). “Tymbre” and “Son.” In D’Alembert & Diderot (Eds.), Encyclopédie. https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/philologic4/encyclopedie0521/

  • Van Elferen, I. (2017). Agency, Aporia, Approaches: How Does Musicology Solve a Problem Like Timbre? Contemporary Music Review, 36(6), 483–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2017.1452685

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions

Read and discuss (in two stages): 

PART A: Consider the following writings, which highlight some historical and modern issues in defining timbre: 

  1. Cornelia Fales’ “The Paradox of Timbre,” which plays an important role in the rise of timbre studies in the 21st Century; 

  2. Fink, Wallmark, and Latour’s introduction to The Relentless Pursuit of Tone, which outlines and contextualizes some challenges of studying timbre; 

  3. Rousseau’s brief written entry in both the D’Alembert and Diderot’s Encyclopédie, one of the first modern definitions of timbre; 

  4. Chion’s short essay in 2011, which pushes to get rid of the idea of timbre entirely. 

PART B: Based on these four writings, be prepared to discuss the following:  

  1. What makes timbre “paradoxical”?  

  2. Who are the historical and modern stakeholders that rely on the development of a definition/theorization of timbre? 

  3. When did you first encounter the term “timbre”? In what context did you encounter it? What was your initial understanding of it? Has your understanding of timbre changed since then, and if so, how? 

  4. What are some consistent issues that historical and modern scholars have grappled with in defining timbre? Compare the perspectives of this week’s authors: where and why do they agree and disagree?  

Further activities and discussion points:

  • Reflect on and problematize how music studies and our language for describing music address topics of timbre. 

  • What is timbre? How does timbre contribute to the experience of musical listening? What (if any) musical elements can we exclude from contributing to the definition of timbre? Why or why not? 

  • In what kinds of spaces (both virtual and physical) does timbre exist? I.e., is it primarily a perceptual phenomenon? An acoustic one? An embodied phenomenon? A music theoretical one? All of the above? 

  • Why is it important to define timbre? What should this definition look like? Should/can it be general enough to apply to any context? Or should it vary depending on who is using it?  

  • Create a single-page handout or timeline that describes the development of a definition of timbre based on the given resources. Use arrows to connect events and show how they influenced/built on one another (remember that progress isn’t always linear!) 

Psychoacoustics

Central problem and goals: This sub-module explores the physical (acoustic) qualities of sounds and how these parameters relate to what we hear and experience as timbre. In order to define timbre from this perspective, we need to answer questions such as:  

  1. How can sounds be characterized acoustically? What are the essential physical components of a sound? 

  2. Which elements of a sound’s structure directly affect our impression of its timbre and why? How might changing certain parameters (individually or in combination) affect our perception of timbre? 

    • Similarly, which elements of a sound’s structure do not necessarily directly affect our impression of its timbre? Why not? 

  3. What are the biophysical mechanics of hearing? How do these auditory processing mechanisms affect our perception of timbres? 

The activities, topics, and sources in this sub-module lay the groundwork for methods of analyzing timbres’ acoustic structures in many different contexts [Module II] and provides context for discussing the acoustic components of defining timbre from the perspective of perception and cognition [Module I, How we listen sub-module: Music perception and cognition]. 

Keywords: Acoustics, Psychoacoustics, Auditory processing, Perception of timbre 

In the Psychoacoustics Sub-Module, we will be delving into the intersection of physics, psychology, and auditory perception. 

Our primary objective in this module is to explore the physical and psychophysical properties of sounds and their significant relationship with timbre. We'll examine how these properties manifest in different forms of music and how they contribute to the unique sonic qualities that we associate with individual instruments and voices. 

Further, we will be drawing connections between these properties and the mechanisms of human hearing. This will involve a deep dive into the intricacies of auditory perception, elucidating how our ears and brains process these complex sonic characteristics, and, in turn, influence our subjective experience of timbre. 

Topics & Resources

Physical/acoustic attributes of sound 

This topic aims to answer the question: What are some of the acoustic dimensions that define a sound? 

 

Key resources 

Additional resources

  • Caclin, A., McAdams, S., Smith, B. K., & Winsberg, S. (2005). Acoustic correlates of timbre space dimensions: A confirmatory study using synthetic tones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 118(1), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1929229

  • Green, B., & Butler, D. (2006). Chapter 9: From acoustics to Tonpsychologie. In T. Christensen (Ed.), The Cambridge history of Western music theory. Cambridge University Press.

  • Helmholtz, H. L. (2011). Chapter II: On the composition of vibrations. In A. J. Ellis (Trans.), The sensations of tone: As a physiological basis for the theory of music (pp. 38–55). P. Smith.

  • Peeters, G., Giordano, B. L., Susini, P., Misdariis, N., & McAdams, S. (2011). The Timbre Toolbox: Extracting audio descriptors from musical signals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 130(5), 2902–2916. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3642604

 
 
 

Psychophysical aspects of timbre 

This topic engages with connections between physical sound properties and our experience of timbre. 

 

Key Resources

Additional Resources

  • Caclin, A., McAdams, S., Smith, B. K., & Winsberg, S. (2005). Acoustic correlates of timbre space dimensions: A confirmatory study using synthetic tones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 118(1), 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1929229

  • Grey, J. M., & Gordon, J. W. (1978). Perceptual effects of spectral modifications on musical timbres. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 63(5), 1493–1500. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.381843

  • Helmholtz, H. L. (1948a). Chapter V: On the differences in the quality of musical tones. In A. J. Ellis (Trans.), The sensations of tone: As a physiological basis for the theory of music (pp. 65–119). P. Smith.

  • Helmholtz, H. L. (2011b). Introduction. In A. J. Ellis (Trans.), On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music (pp. 1–6). P. Smith.

  • Howard, D., & Angus, J. (2017). Acoustics and psychoacoustics, 5th ed. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315716879

  • Lemaitre, G., Susini, P., Winsberg, S., McAdams, S., & Letinturier, B. (2007). The sound quality of car horns: A psychoacoustical study of timbre. Acta Acustica United with Acustica, 93 (3), 457–468. https://doi.org/10.3813/aaa.918158

  • McAdams, S., Winsberg, S., Donnadieu, S., De Soete, G., & Krimphoff, J. (1995). Perceptual scaling of synthesized musical timbres: Common dimensions, specificities, and latent subject classes. Psychological Research, 58 (3), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00419633

  • Plomp, R. (2002). Introduction (or, Four Scientific Biases in Hearing Research). In The intelligent ear: On the nature of sound perception (pp. 1–11). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. https://doi.org:10.4324/9781410604255

 
 
 

Auditory Processing 

This topic focuses on the mechanisms of human hearing.  

 

Key Resources

Additional Resources 

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions 

  • Prepare a handout that summarizes and explains one of the assigned readings. Do your best to present the information in a clear and easily digestible format (i.e., not a list of bullet points). Be prepared to informally present your handout to your peers. In addition to summarizing the main points of your topics, your handout should:  

    • Contextualize your reading by discussing how it interacts with the other assigned readings  

    • Discuss how your reading contributes to defining timbre  

    • Include questions for class discussion 

  • In groups, discuss the strengths and limitations of an experimental design from one of the assigned readings. Propose at least one modification that you feel would improve its design. Identify the relevance of your group’s assigned study to the development of a theory of musical timbre. Suggest a few ways (in addition to those listed by the authors) in which the results of this experiment lay the groundwork for further research. 

Assignments & Projects 

  • Prepare a 30-minute mock lesson on one of the topics above. Be sure to summarize the topic based on the given readings and class discussion and to explain how your topic relates to the development of a theory of musical timbre. Please include (excerpts from) at least one piece of music in your lesson and one short, interactive activity for the class to complete. Do your best to generate discussion with your classmates about convergences and divergences between authors’ perspectives and those of various musical stakeholder groups (e.g., composers, performers, etc.).  

  • Draft an experimental design that tests an acoustic/psychoacoustic hypothesis related to timbre. Your design should be related to a remaining question you have from the assigned readings in this module. Be sure to include the following elements in your design:  

    • Research question and contexts 

    • Hypothesis 

    • Methodology 

      • Include your sampling strategy, with a target sample, the population you’d be drawing from, your sampling method, and how you would reduce sampling bias 

    • An explanation of what your design would contribute to the literature: how is it relevant? What could your results contribute to the development of a theory of musical timbre from an acoustics/psychoacoustics perspective? 

  1. Select one of the patches, and then modify the oscillators in the leftmost pane, keeping a record of the changes you make. Describe what happens to the sound with each of your modifications.  

  2. Keep your modification to the oscillator constant and proceed by exploring the different settings on the filter pane. Describe what happens to the sound with each filter modification. 

  3. Do the same thing with the amplitude envelope setting, at the bottom of the middle pane. How does changing these settings affect your sound? 

Timbre Perception and Cognition

Central problem and goals: This sub-module covers the perception and cognition of timbre, and how it relates to music and listening. Topics include: 

  1. Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) and timbre space

  2. Auditory scene analysis (ASA)

  3. Recognition and classification of timbre

This sub-module introduces the basics of timbre perception and lays the groundwork for further exploration of methods of timbre-based music analysis and of functional uses of timbre in music. 

Keywords: Perception of timbre, music perception and cognition, timbre space, auditory scene analysis. 

The Timbre Perception and Cognition sub-module aims to accomplish several objectives that contribute to a comprehensive understanding of musical timbre and its significance within the broader context of music cognition. Firstly, it seeks to conduct a thorough survey and in-depth exploration of cognitive perspectives on musical timbre, examining how it functions as a carrier of musical form. This investigation will shed light on the various ways in which timbre influences our perception and interpretation of music, allowing for a deeper appreciation of its role in shaping musical experiences.

Additionally, this sub-module endeavors to establish a foundation for a unified theory of musical timbre, bringing together insights from cognitive psychology, psychoacoustics, and other relevant disciplines. By integrating these diverse perspectives, the aim is to develop a comprehensive and coherent framework that can elucidate the complex nature of timbre and its psychological underpinnings. Such a theory will provide a valuable resource for both orchestration practitioners, as explored in Module 3, and music analysts, as explored in Module 2.

Ultimately, the objectives of the Timbre Perception and Cognition sub-module are geared towards advancing our understanding of the cognitive aspects of timbre perception, fostering a theoretical framework that can inform orchestration practices and music analysis. By accomplishing these goals, this sub-module aims to contribute to the broader field of music cognition and deepen our comprehension of the intricate relationship between timbre, perception, and musical expression.

Topics & Resources

Multidimensional scaling and timbre space

This topic engages with the following fundamental questions:

  • How can we characterize the complexity of timbre perception?

  • What are some experimental methods and data analysis techniques? How can timbral dimensions be psychophysically quantified?

  • What is the predictive power of a timbre space as a model? i.e., to what extent do timbre space structures generalize across studies and sets of sounds or listeners?

  • What are exploratory and confirmatory studies, how do they interact with one another, and what role do they play in timbre studies?

 

Key resources

  • Grey, J. M., & Gordon, J. W. (1978). Perceptual effects of spectral modifications on musical timbres. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 63 (5), 1493–1500. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.381843

  • McAdams, S., Winsberg, S., Donnadieu, S., De Soete, G., & Krimphoff, J. (1995). Perceptual scaling of synthesized musical timbres: Common dimensions, specificities, and latent subject classes. Psychological Research, 58 (3), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00419633

Additional Resources

  • McAdams, S., & Cunibile, J.-C. (1992). Perception of timbral analogies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 336(1278), 383–389. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1992.0072

  • Tardieu, D., & McAdams, S. (2012). Perception of dyads of impulsive and sustained instrument sounds. Music Perception, 30 (2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2012.30.2.117

 
 
 

Auditory scene analysis

This topic focuses on the following three elements:  

  • Timbre arises from the perceptual fusion of acoustic components. 

  • Timbre can act as a structuring force in the perceptual organization of sequences, musical units, and musical sections. 

  • Musical listening can involve timbre-based attentional selection. 

 

Key Resources

Additional Resources

  • Bey, C., & McAdams, S. (2003). Postrecognition of interleaved melodies as an indirect measure of auditory stream formation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29(2), 267. [https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.29.2.267

  • Iverson, P. (1995). Auditory stream segregation by musical timbre: Effects of static and dynamic acoustic attributes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21(4), 751. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.21.4.751

  • McAdams, S. (1982). Spectral fusion and the creation of auditory images. In Music, mind, and brain (pp. 279–298). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-8917-0_15

 
 
 

Cross-modal correspondences

This topic links to similar resources as timbre semantics.

 

Key Resources (same as Timbre Semantics)

Additional Resources 

  • Adeli, M., Rouat, J., & Molotchnikoff, S. (2014). Audiovisual correspondence between musical timbre and visual shapes. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 352. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00352

 
 
 

Timbre perception 

This topic engages with the source classification and identification of timbres and sound sources. 

  • The following questions are also answered: What is the role of timbre-based categorization and identification in music perception? Perception of timbral intervals and contours. Musical operations on timbral patterns. What are the possibilities and limits in creating timbral scales and using them for musical structures? 

 

Key Resources 

Additional Resources 

  • Chiasson, F., Traube, C., Lagarrigue, C., & McAdams, S. (2017). Koechlin’s volume: Perception of sound extensity among instrument timbres from different families. Musicae Scientiae, 21(1), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864916649638

  • Ferrer, R. F. (2011). Timbral environments: An ecological approach to the cognition of timbre. Empirical Musicology Review, 6. https://doi.org/10.18061/1811/51213

  • McAdams, S. (1993). Recognition of sound sources and events. In S. McAdams & E. Bigand (Eds.), Thinking in Sound: The Cognitive Psychology of Human Audition (pp. 146–198). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198522577.003.0006

  • McAdams, S., & Siedenburg, K. (2019). Perception and cognition of musical timbre. In P. J. Rentfrow & D. J. Levitin (Eds.), Foundations of Music Psychology: Theory and Research (pp. 71-120). MIT Press.

  • Plomp, R. (2002). Introduction. In The Intelligent Ear: On the Nature of Sound Perception (pp. 1–11). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. [DOI: 10.4324/9781410604255]

  • Smith, Z. M., Delgutte, B., & Oxenham, A. J. (2002). Chimaeric sounds reveal dichotomies in auditory perception. Nature, 416 (6876), 87–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/416087a

  • Tillmann, B., & McAdams, S. (2004). Implicit learning of musical timbre sequences: Statistical regularities confronted with acoustical (dis)similarities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(5), 1131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.5.1131

  • Wallmark, Z., Iacoboni, M., Deblieck, C., & Kendall, R. A. (2018). Embodied listening and timbre: Perceptual, acoustical, and neural correlates. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 35(3), 332–363. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2010.27.3.223

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions 

  • Timbre space representation as a tool for conceiving of how to think about timbre, compose with or analyze timbral structures. 

    • Summarize the topic from the readings and any other relevant literature. Be sure to explain how these issues relate to the development of a theory of musical timbre. 

    • Draw from pieces of music from different styles and explain how they support or disconfirm these ideas and claims. 

    • Focus on convergences and divergences between composers’ and theorists’ conceptions, on the one hand, and listeners' perceptions, on the other, across different styles. 

    • Come up with a set of questions for discussion with the rest of the class on this subject. 

  • Do your presentation on the issue in such a manner as to stimulate discussion, which you are to animate with deep questions. 

  • Kaija Saariaho’s early electronic works at IRCAM, Io (1987) for ensemble with live electronics.

    • Discuss how the composer's utilization of timbre in the piece might relate to the concepts that have been covered on auditory perception. 

  • The piece that is the opening of the Art Ensemble Of Chicago record “Certain Blacks” (1970) blurs the line that separates music organized around pitch and melody versus music based exclusively on timbre.

    • Show/discuss the relationship between pitch and timbral-based organization in music listening. 


Cultural Listening

Central problem and goals: This sub-module explores how enculturation and learning influence music listening and descriptions of timbre (and music in general). Topics include: 

  1. How different listeners think about timbre, 

  2. How knowledge structures influence listening and thinking about timbre (and music). 

This sub-module lays the groundwork for thinking about timbre and provides the basis and context for other aspects of timbre studies. 

Keywords: Culture, music cognition, timbre description, learning and experience. 

The objectives for the Cultural Listening sub-module are two-fold. Firstly, it aims to stimulate thinking and foster meaningful discussions among participants regarding the various ways in which listening perspectives can differ. This exploration of diverse perspectives enriches the overall understanding of timbre and enhances the appreciation of its multifaceted nature. 

Secondly, the sub-module seeks to delve into the profound influence of listener perceptions on the discourse surrounding timbre. By examining how individual experiences, cultural backgrounds, and personal biases shape the interpretation and evaluation of timbre, participants gain insight into the complex interplay between subjective perception and objective analysis. By analyzing the impact of these subjective factors, the module encourages critical thinking and facilitates a deeper understanding of how timbre is discussed, evaluated, and ultimately integrated into various musical contexts. Ultimately, these objectives aim to foster a comprehensive and inclusive understanding of timbre perception and its role in shaping musical experiences. 

Topics & Resources

Perspectives on timbre listening

This topic includes case studies and descriptions of different uses of timbre in different musical cultures and explores influences on timbre perception.  

  • It also answers the following question: How is timbre perceived differently by listeners with different experiences? 

 

Key resources 

  • Chion, M. (2019). Reflections on the Sound Object and Reduced Listening. In J. A. Steintrager & R. Chow (Eds.), Sound Objects. Duke University Press.

  • Eidsheim, N. S. (2019). The Race of Sound: Listening, Timbre, and Vocality in African American Music. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822372646

  • Fales, C. (2002). The paradox of timbre. Ethnomusicology, 46(1), 56–95. https://doi.org/10.2307/852808

  • Fink, R., Wallmark, Z., & Latour, M. (Eds.). (2018). Introduction—Chasing the Dragon: In Search of Tone in Popular Music. In The Relentless Pursuit of Tone: Timbre in Popular Music (pp. 1–17). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199985227.001.0001

  • Lavengood, M. L. (2020). The Cultural Significance of Timbre Analysis: A Case Study in 1980s Pop Music, Texture, and Narrative. Music Theory Online, 26(3). https://mtosmt.org/issues/mto.20.26.3/mto.20.26.3.lavengood.html

  • Levin, T., & Süzükei, V. (2018). Timbre-Centered Listening in the Tuvan Soundscape. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Timbre. Advance online publication. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. (Vol. 14, pp. 206–228). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.15

Additional Resources

  • Batchelor, D. (2000). Chromophobia. Reaktion books.

  • Chion, M. (1994). Chapter 2: The three listening modes. In C. Gorbman (Trans.), Audio-Vision. Columbia University Press.

  • Chion, M. (2011a). Dissolution of the Notion of Timbre. Differences, 22(2–3), 235–239. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1428906

  • Chion, M. (2011b). Let’s Have Done With the Notion of “Noise.” Differences, 22(2–3), 240–248. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1428906a

  • Chow, R. (2019). Listening after “Acousmaticity”: Notes on a Transdisciplinary Problematic. In J. A. Steintrager & R. Chow (Eds.), Sound Objects. Duke University Press.

  • Helmreich, S. (2018). Music for Cochlear Implants. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Timbre (Vol. 14). Oxford University Press.

  • Herder, J. G. (2006). Fourth Critical Forest. In G. Moore (Ed. & Trans.), Selected Writings on Aesthetics. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400827169.177

 
 
 

Knowledge structures and their influence on listening 

This topic is primarily concerned with (1) how listeners’ musical training and experience enculturates them to hear music and perceive timbre in certain ways, and (2) how cultural descriptions of timbre modify and shape the way timbre might be perceived.  

 

Key Resources

  • Alluri, V., & Toiviainen, P. (2011). Effect of enculturation on the semantic and acoustic correlates of polyphonic timbre. Music Perception, 29(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2012.29.3.297

  • Fales, C. (2018). Hearing timbre: Implicit perceptual learning among early Bay Area ravers. In R. Fink, Z. Wallmark, & M. Latour (Eds.), The Relentless Pursuit of Tone: Timbre in Popular Music (pp. 21–42). Oxford University Press New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199985227.001.0001

  • Levin, T., & Suzukei, V. (2010). Listening the Tuvan Way: Timbre-Centered Music. In Where Rivers and Mountains Sing: Sound, Music, and Nomadism in Tuva and Beyond (pp. 45–72). Indiana University Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/75380

  • Tenzer, M. (2018). Timbre and Polyphony in Balinese Gamelan. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Timbre. Oxford University Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.001.0001

Additional Resources

  • Holmes, J. A. (2017). Expert listening beyond the limits of hearing: Music and deafness. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 70(1), 171–220. https://doi.org/10.1525/jams.2017.70.1.171

  • Iverson, J. J. (2009). Historical memory and György Ligeti’s sound-mass music 1958-1968 [PhD Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin]. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/6905

  • Lachenmann, H. (2003). "Hearing [Hören] is defenseless—Without listening [Hören]: On possibilities and difficulties." Circuit: Musiques Contemporaines, 13(2), 27–50. https://doi.org/10.7202/902272ar

  • Robinson, D. (2020). Hungry Listening: Resonant Theory for Indigenous Sound Studies. University of Minnesota Press.

  • Walden, D., & Kendall, R. A. (2021). Pitch vs. Timbre. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Timbre (Vol. 14, pp. 642–675). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013

 
 
 

Activities

Discussions 

  • Read Chion's "Reflections on the Sound Object and Reduced Listening" and discuss: 

    • Do you think "reduced listening" is important/useful in discourse on music? Does it aid or hamper cultural understanding? 

    • What do you think about Schaeffer saying that "there must be a common model among musics in order to appreciate their differences"? Will this hinder or help a listener in making sense/appreciating/understanding the music of another tradition? 

    • What do you think about this idea of a "research project of a universal music"? 

  • How do knowledge structures influence listening? How do they influence how one describes timbre? 

  • Choose a piece of music and reflect on how listeners from different contexts (cultural, linguistic, occupational, different ages, etc.) might approach the music from different perspectives. 

  • Choose a piece of music you've never listened to before from another country or in a style/genre you don't usually listen to and reflect on your own biases and listening habits (drawing from the introduction and first chapter of Robinson's Hungry Listening). Do your best to answer the following questions: 

    • What elements of the music do you latch onto most when you listen to this song? What catches your ear? (e.g., the melody, the timbres, the bassline, the rhythm, etc.). Why do you think this is? Can you understand the music not as a collection of various textural layers but as a single unit that doesn't necessarily need to be subdivided? 

    • How do you "make sense" of this piece of music? I.e., do you have a chronological plan in your head for how this music goes? If you were to visualize it (using musical or non-musical tools and vocabulary), what would it look like? 

    • What cultural or genre cues does the timbre give you in this piece? How would you describe the timbres in this piece? Think about the kinds of metaphors you're using: where did you learn them from? Do we use similar metaphors in other (non-musical) contexts? 

    • Does this piece remind you of other music that you've heard before? Do you think this other music influences your understanding of this new piece? If not, what experience do you think you are drawing on to interpret and understand this piece of music? 

    • Do you like this piece? Why or why not? What enculturated factors or biases might influence your opinion? 

    • What function do you envision this piece serving? Why? 

    • Then, try your best to interpret the piece in the opposite way to your initial listen on a second hearing. Which of your original interpretations are the most difficult to discard? For example, is it impossible for you to not hear a chronological formal layout to this song? Are you able to dissociate from the cultural and genre implications that you bring to the timbres? 

    • In all, this is an exercise in questioning and taking stock of what you bring to the music, subsequently using this information to deduce some of your primary listening habits. Recall that since they're habits, they won't necessarily be obvious to you. I would recommend doing this exercise more than once with multiple different types of music to try and get a more comprehensive understanding of what your listening habits are and how your knowledge structures influence your listening, especially with regards to musical timbres.  

Listening

Byungki Hwang - The Labyrinth 

  • The following link is the very first recording performed by the composer himself (he played a Kayagum, a Korean traditional plucked instrument) and Hong Shin Cha (singer).

  • One of his interviews, available in the following link, will be highly helpful for anyone who is interested in the composer's profile, the genesis of the piece, and the composer's comment on the piece. 

  • Byungki Hwang (1936-2018) was a Korean composer/Kayagum player. His contribution to the contemporary Korean traditional and Western music was enormous, and his influence on Western researchers also resulted in an extensive body of study of the composer in English. 

  • The Labyrinth (1973) has been one of the most sensational compositions by the composer largely due to its strange and even frightening effect on Korean audiences. Even this piece was banned by the Korean dictatorship of the time. After the ban was lifted, this piece suffered from notorious rumors and urban legends circulated among Koreans until a recent rediscovery. 
    As to the timbral quality of the piece, I would invite you to consider how the composer creates a wordless, abstract, but powerful drama through a variety of female vocal timbres, the spectrum of which exceeds what is normally expectable. If you're more interested in the accompaniment (kayagum), it will also be a nice topic for the timbral experiment. 

Orovela: A Georgian Folk Song 

  • Prompt:: In listening to the 2 different versions of the same piece, how do we identify and describe the different sound worlds and timbres between the male and female voices? What colors, forms, and movement do these sound worlds create in your imagination as you listen to them? What are the similarities? What are the differences? Are these a result of timbre? How/Why? 

Summaries and write-ups

  • Choose one of the assigned readings and write a one-page outline that summarizes it. Be sure to include the main thesis of the paper and definitions of any key terms. Add page numbers for any quotations you pull. 

Class presentation

  • Summarize the topic from the readings and any other relevant literature. Be sure to explain how these issues relate to the development of a theory of musical timbre. Draw from pieces of music from different styles and explain how they support or disconfirm these ideas and claims. Focus on convergences and divergences between composers' and theorists' conceptions, on the one hand, and listeners' perceptions, on the other, across different styles. Come up with a set of questions for discussion with the rest of the class on this subject. Dig deeply and make it provocative! Do your presentation on the issue (30 min) in such a manner as to stimulate discussion, which you are to animate with deep questions (45 min). 

1.2 Timbre in musical communication

Musical communication depends on the successful expression, as well successful reception of musical intentions. Timbre production plays an important role in this process. This module explores timbre expression and communication, and aspects of timbre production in timbre vs. musical tone.

Keywords: musical communication, musical affect, timbre production, timbre expression, expressive cues, production cues, instrumental timbre, timbre in performance.


Timbre and musical communication

Central problem and goals: This sub-module looks at timbre production from a performer and organological perspective, exploring how these relate to musical expression and communication. Topics covered include:  

  • Timbre expression and musical communication 

  • Timbre and affect 

This sub-module defines timbral function in musical communication. 

Keywords: timbre expression, musical communication, music and affect. 

The first objective of the exploration into timbre production and perception is to understand the role of timbre in musical communication and how it contributes to conveying emotions, moods, and intentions in music. By examining the relationships between timbre production and perception, researchers aim to unravel the intricate connection between the sonic qualities of different instruments and the way they are perceived by listeners. Secondly, the exploration aims to enhance our awareness of the vast array of timbres that can be produced by musical instruments. By categorizing these timbral families and understanding their characteristics, researchers seek to deepen our understanding of timbre and its impact on musical expression. Through these objectives, this submodule seeks to shed light on the complex and nuanced world of timbre and its significance in the realm of music. 

Topics & Resources

Timbre and musical communication

This topic focuses on timbral expression in performance, exploring the timbral cues that performers use in their musical expressions. It also investigates how timbre contributes to affective responses in musical listening and listeners’ perceptions of timbral cues. To what extent is timbre an aspect of musical communication? How does it interact with other aspects of musical communication?  

 

Key resources

  • Dubnov, S., McAdams, S., & Reynolds, R. (2006). Structural and affective aspects of music from statistical audio signal analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57(11), 1526–1536. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20429

  • Gabrielsson, A., & Juslin, P. N. (1996). Emotional Expression in Music Performance: Between the Performer’s Intention and the Listener’s Experience. Psychology of Music, 24(1), 68–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735696241007

  • Grimaud, A. M., & Eerola, T. (2022). Emotional expression through musical cues: A comparison of production and perception approaches. PLOS ONE, 17 (12), e0279605. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279605

  • Juslin, P. N. (2000). Cue utilization in communication of emotion in music performance: Relating performance to perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26 (6), 1797. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.26.6.1797

  • Juslin, P. N., & Timmers, R. (2010). Expression and communication of emotion in music performance. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 453–489). Oxford University Press.

    van Elferen, I. (2018). Timbrality. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Timbre (Vol. 14). Oxford University Press. DOI:   10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.013.28

Additional resources

 
 
 

Activities

Listening

  • Julia Wolfe’s Big Beautiful Dark and Scary

    • How does timbre evolve over the course of the piece? What kinds relationships exist between instruments, and how do they contribute to a sense of the ensemble’s overall sound? 

  • Watch video on a survey of synth sounds

    • Choose one that you think is most interesting and watch that episode. Write a short summary on what was appealing about the synth sound you chose, how you explain its sound, and how the performer achieves it. 

Class activities 

  • In groups, listen to "Revelations: Music in Pure Intonation" (2007) by Michael Harrison

    • Discuss the following questions: 
      1) How do the musical elements of timbre and intonation/tuning interact with one another?  
      2) Do you think we should include intonation in our definition of timbre? Why or why not?  
      3) How does the just/pure intonation of this piece affect its timbre? 

    • Each person within your group should take a stance on the answer to the second question. Debate this question within your group in a structured way, providing examples if possible. (Potential expansion: the whole class debates after some group discussion. Each group could briefly present their summary of the discussion and the class can discuss similarities and differences in the different groups conclusions.) 

Summaries and write-ups 

  • Creative representations of timbre --> Choose a 1-minute segment from Eleanor Hovda’s Lemniscates string quartet 

    • Represent the timbre using whatever means you come up with.

    • Be prepared to present your representation to the class. 


Timbre Production

Central problem and goals: This sub-module looks at timbre production from a performer and organological perspective, exploring how these relate to musical expression and communication. Discussions of timbre production and perception may look and sound very different in various musical contexts. For instance, a discussion of timbre in the music theory graduate seminar classroom may involve spectrograms and semantics, whereas one in the private studio lesson may focus on issues of vibrato, the precise sound of an articulation, the quality and/or clarity of one's sound, air or bow pressure and other embodied concepts, etc. Taken all together, these latter topics refer to the physical execution of a sound's timbral or tone-based characteristics based on aesthetic and/or stylistic conventions. It is thus essential to incorporate performers' perspectives into definitions of musical timbre, which undoubtedly warrants a discussion of musical tone and its interactions with timbre.

The objectives of this submodule in timbre production encompass several dimensions. The first aim is to delve into the intricate relationships between timbre and musical communication. By examining how timbre contributes to conveying emotions and intentions in music, we will seek to uncover the underlying mechanisms that make timbre an essential element of musical expression. Additionally, we will highlight variations in the terminology used to define tone and timbre across different musical contexts. By understanding the reasons behind these variations, we can gain insights into the cultural, historical, and contextual factors that shape our understanding of timbre.

Another aim is to delve into pedagogical techniques and approaches for developing instrumental and vocal tone. Through this, we can provide valuable insights into how musicians can enhance their tone production skills. The exploration also seeks to investigate the connections between sound production techniques and tone. By examining how specific techniques influence the resulting tone, we will gain a deeper understanding of the interplay between technique and timbre.

Another objective of this submodule seeks to identify connections between tone, techniques, and aesthetic norms in music performance. We will investigate aspects such as when to use vibrato, shaping notes, articulation techniques, and the amount of variety in a specific type of tone, aiming to uncover the aesthetic considerations that guide tone production choices.

Lastly, the exploration extends to identifying different literature formats and means of conveying pedagogical information in the realm of tone production. By comparing word-of-mouth transmission of knowledge with written publications, researchers aim to understand the various ways in which pedagogical information about tone has been disseminated over time.

Through these objectives, this submodule seeks to deepen our understanding of timbre, tone production, and their role in musical expression, while considering the broader cultural, historical, and pedagogical contexts that shape our perception and development of timbre-related skills.

Topics & Resources

Timbre production

This topic provides a general overview and exploration of the potential of timbral variation in music (Detailed exploration of this in Module 3), investigating how instruments afford timbral changes and how performers and composers manipulate timbre.

  • The topic also defines “tone” and explores how it relates to/intersects with the timbre, investigating connections between tone and (1) technique, (2) aesthetic norms, and (3) gender and cultural identity. Many of the additional resources in this topic examine pedagogical approaches to tone production.

 

Key Resources

Additional resources

  • Cypess, R. (2015). Timbre, expression, and combination keyboard instruments: Milchmeyer’s art of veränderung. Keyboard Perspectives, 8, 43–69.

  • De Souza, J. (2017). Music at hand: Instruments, bodies, and cognition. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190271114.001.0001

  • Dick, R. (2008). Tone development through extended techniques: Flute etudes and instruction. Lauren Keiser Music Publishing.

  • Dolan, E. I. (2006). The idea of timbre in the age of Haydn [Dissertation, Cornell University]. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/3227

  • Donin, N. (2016). Sonic imprints: Instrumental resynthesis in contemporary composition. In G. Borio (Ed.), Musical listening in the age of technological reproduction (pp. 345–364). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315596969

  • Gooley, D. (2013). Jazz piano pedaling and the production of timbral difference. Keyboard Perspectives, vi, 101–126.

  • Hui, A. (2012). The psychophysical ear: Musical experiments, experimental sounds, 1840-1910. MIT Press.

  • Josh Wright (Director). (2016, February 3). Tone quality—Create a more beautiful sound at the piano. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KQllqbb9Iw

  • Joubert, S. (2020, March 22). How to improve your tone production on the piano | LPI. London Piano Institute. https://www.londonpianoinstitute.co.uk/how-to-improve-your-tone-production-on-the-piano/#:~:text=Start%20by%20playing%20single%20notes,the%20difference%20in%20the%20sound

  • Loughridge, D. (2018). Timbre before timbre: Listening to the effects of organ stops, violin mutes, and piano pedals ca. 1650–1800. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of timbre (Vol. 14, pp. 268–290). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190637224.013.16

  • Moyse, M. (1934). De la sonorité: Art et technique. A. Leduc. https://repository.monash.edu/items/show/80877#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0

  • Moyse, M. (1962). Tone development through interpretation: For the flute (and other wind instruments): The study of expression, vibrato, color, suppleness and their application to different styles. McGinnis & Marx.

  • Read, G. (1993). Compendium of modern instrumental techniques. Greenwood Press.

  • Rehding, A. (2016). Instruments of music theory. Music Theory Online, 22 (4). [https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.22.4.4

  • Rink, J. (Ed.). (1995). The practice of performance. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511552366

  • Sachs, C. (1940). The history of musical instruments. W.W. Norton & Co.

  • Schaeffner, A. (2020). Origins of instruments in the human body. In R. Taylor, A. Lih, & E. Lih (Eds.), The origin of musical instruments: An ethnological introduction to the history of instrumental music (pp. 1–21). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315554921

  • Tresch, J., & Dolan, E. I. (2013). Toward a new organology: Instruments of music and science. Osiris, 28(1), 278–298. https://doi.org/10.1086/671381

  • Yates, S. (2016). 1: Refinement of tone. In Classical guitar technique from foundation to virtuosity, A Comprehensive Guide: Part 2 Mastery and Virtuosity (pp. 19–60). Classical Guitar Study Editions.

 
 
 

Activities

Listening

  • Watch Dr. Shannon Coates (a professional and well-known vocal pedagogue currently working at Wilfrid Laurier University) discuss the difference between head voice and chest voice in one of her "Live Office Hour"

  • Please watch from 2:44-4:00 and 4:39-end (these timestamps cut out some of her old promotional material for events that have already happened and the technical difficulty she has with her livestream).

  • Importantly, Dr. Coates discusses the connection between the physical approaches to producing sound in head voice or chest voice and what she calls the "tonal outcomes" (i.e., the resultant timbre and vocal tone) as well as the typical stylistic associations of those tonal outcomes.

  • What kind of technical terminology does she use to describe the physical action of producing different vocal tones?

  • What kind of language does she use to describe the resultant tones of head voice vs. chest voice? How might this differ from other ways of describing timbre? How do these descriptors connect to stylistic norms? (see timbre semantics sub-module)

  • If you are a vocalist, to what extent does the information and commentary she provides in this video align with your experiences and prior training? How would you define and describe vocal tones that are typical or atypical of the Western Classical Style? What about other styles of singing such as jazz, country, folk, heavy metal, Chinese opera, Korean pan’sori, etc.?  How did you learn when it was "appropriate" or "expected" for you to use one tone over another?

  • To what extent is defining tone from a performance perspective an embodied process? To what extent is defining timbre from a listening perspective an embodied process? Compare and contrast.

  • How does Dr. Coates' definition of and commentary on vocal tone relate to issues of gender and cultural identity? Draw from some of the other readings above (also link to Timbre and Identity in Module 2 ) to support your ideas.

Class activties

  • Try out this web-based synth

    • Select the 000 blank canvas patch.

    • Explore each of the parameters in turn and describe what happens to the sound as you apply a particular setting.

      • E.g., Under oscillator, try out the different waveforms. Describe the sound of each shape. Under amplitude envelope, change the attack/release. How does it modify the sound? Change the types of filters. What do they do to the sound now?

  • As a class, come up with a list of terms to describe the timbre of a sound. Now try to create the sound that is described by each term. How does your sound differ from the rest of your classmates? What aspects of your sound are similar? (This activity would also fit into the timbre semantics (Module I)-where it is duplicated-and Psychoacoustics (Module I) sub-modules, as well as Module II and Module III (Composition)).

Discussion

  • To what extent are the terms "timbre" and "tone" synonymous? Do both terms have similar scopes/implications? Is one more specific than the other? How might the answers to these questions change depending on the context in which these two terms are used? Use the literature above to support your argument.

  • What does the literature (oral or written) on developing and properly using musical tone look like? How does it differ from other scholarly timbral literature formats?

  • Based on the practical readings and resources listed above, how do vocal and instrumental pedagogues define tone? Are there similarities between their approaches? What are the primary differences? How do these approaches (either individually or from a more general perspective) align with or differ from other ways of describing and defining timbre? Answer this question with specific focus on the pedagogical method, the communication style and format, and the language used to define and describe tone/timbre.

  • To what extent does the technological modification or mediation of the voice or other recorded instrument sounds (e.g., guitar distortion) affect how we define an instrument’s tone or timbre? Would the technological modification of an acoustic sound fall under modifications of tone or of timbre? What about the acoustic/physiological modification of a sound (e.g., extended instrumental and vocal techniques)?

Assignments

  • How many different piano tones can you create? Go to a practice room and try to produce as many different piano tones as possible. Record your attempts. For each different tone you create, catalogue the musical parameters/characteristics of the envelope you changed (e.g., articulation, dynamics, whether you used pedal or not, if you modified the instrument in some way, such as by placing a piece of paper over the strings). Submit your recording(s) along with a write-up (in any format, so long as it's clear) about how you produced each piano tone. Include in this write-up (or in the recording) a verbal/written description of the tonal outcome. Then, answer the following questions:

  • How varied were your piano tones? To what extent did pitch, register, and texture factor into your piano tone creation (I.e., how much variety could you create using the same pitch in the same register versus the registral extremes or solo vs. chordal vs. contrapuntal textures on the instrument?)

  • To what extent did modifying elements of the sound envelope (attack, decay, sustain, release ) affect each of your piano tones? (Admittedly, the piano does not have a sustain, but where there anything you were able to do to give an impression of a longer or shorter sustain?) Do we typically describe these elements when discussing instrumental or vocal timbre as well?

  • Why is the piano a good instrument for this exercise compared to a woodwind or string instrument? Would you be able to achieve similar variety with an electric piano/keyboard?

  • Were you able to create any piano tones that sound so distant from the source instrument that it's barely identifiable as a piano? If so, would you consider this a type of piano tone or a new timbre entirely? Why? If you did not create piano tones that obscure the source instrument, reflect on why you didn't: where is the line between the various tone possibilities of an instrument and separate timbres? What does "piano tone" mean to you and where do you think your ideas about this definition came from?

  • **Potential modification to this activity: Ask students to do this on their own instrument instead of at the piano. The piano was initially chosen because it has arguably more fixed elements (e.g., pitch) than other instruments, but this exercise would likely be effective with any other instrument**

1.3 Timbre Description

Timbre is a complex thing to describe. The different ways in which researchers, composers, performers, etc. describe timbre stem from the emphases they play on different aspects of this complex phenomenon. It also depends on each person's linguistic preferences, and the ways that timbre is described might also reflect the ways it is organized perceptually.

Keywords: timbre semantics, descriptions of sound, tone colour, sound quality


What is timbre?

Central problem and goals: This sub-module explores the ways we talk about timbre, and how timbre description relates to perception and cognition. Topics covered include:

  1. Timbre definitions,

  2. Semantic descriptions of timbre,

  3. Correspondences between perceptual organization of timbre and semantic descriptions.

This sub-module looks at timbre descriptions and lays the groundwork for further topics in timbral analysis.

Keywords: Timbre semantics, imagining timbres, tone versus timbre

The objectives of this submodule revolve around exploring the multifaceted nature of timbre and its descriptions. Firstly, we will investigate the different ways in which timbre has been described across various musical and scholarly contexts. By examining the diverse terminologies and descriptors used to articulate timbral qualities, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the nuanced aspects of timbre perception.

Secondly, the exploration delves into the relationship between timbre semantics and timbre perception. We will explore how the words and concepts we use to describe timbre align with our perceptual experiences. By studying this relationship, we can establish connections between the cognitive understanding and subjective perception of timbre, shedding light on the intricate interplay between language and perception in the realm of timbre.

Additionally, this submodule aims to understand how the perceptual organization of timbre and timbre semantics relate to each other. We will examine how we categorize and organize timbral qualities perceptually and how these organizational frameworks align with the conceptual understanding of timbre. By examining the perceptual and semantic dimensions of timbre, we can provide a more comprehensive understanding of how our cognitive processes and perceptual experiences shape our understanding and description of timbral characteristics.

Topics & Resources

What is timbre

This topic aims to answer the following fundamental questions:

a) Historically, how has timbre been described?

b) How can timbre be described?

 

Key resources

Additional resources

 
 
 

Timbre Semantics

This topic addresses the following questions:

a) What words are used to characterize timbre?

b) How are these words related to

  1. how timbre is used structurally within the music and

  2. how we perceive its organization within the music?

c) How are the verbal descriptions of timbre related to the sounds’ acoustic properties?

 

Key resources

Additional resources

  • Barthes, R. (1977). The grain of the voice (1972). In S. Heath (Trans.), Image, music, text (pp. 179–189). Noonday Press/Farrar, Strauss and Giroux.

  • Herder, J. G. (2006). Fourth critical forest. In G. Moore (Ed. & Trans.), Selected writings on aesthetics. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400827169.177

  • Reymore, L., & Huron, D. (2020). Mapping the cognitive linguistic dimensions of musical instrument timbre. Psychomusicology, 30 (3), 124–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000263

  • Saitis, C., Fritz, C., Scavone, G. P., Guastavino, C., & Dubois, D. (2017). Perceptual evaluation of violins: A psycholinguistic analysis of preference verbal descriptions by experienced musicians. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 141(4), 2746–2757. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4980143

  • Wallmark, Z. (2014). Appraising timbre: Embodiment and affect at the threshold of music and noise [PhD Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)]. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/99t2t939#main

  • Wallmark, Z. (2019). A corpus analysis of timbre semantics in orchestration treatises. Psychology of Music, 47 (4), 585–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735618768102

  • Zacharakis, A. I., Pastiadis, K., Papadelis, G., & Reiss, J. D. (2011). An investigation of musical timbre: Uncovering salient semantic descriptors and perceptual dimensions. ISMIR, 807–812.

 
 
 

Imagining timbres

This topic addresses the following questions:

  • How do we imagine timbres inside our heads?

  • To what extent is imagining timbres a mimetic process?

  • To what extent does imagining timbres intersect with the way we describe timbres?

  • How is one’s mental conception/representation of timbre affected by their past listening experience? (see Cultural Listening Sub-Module)

 

Key resources

  • Crowder, R. G. (2014). Research on memory/imagery for musical timbre. In D. Reisberg (Ed.), Auditory Imagery (pp. 29–44). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315807621

  • McAdams, S. (1982). Spectral fusion and the creation of auditory images. In M. Clynes (Ed.), Music, Mind, and Brain (pp. 279–298). Plenum Press. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-8917-0_15

  • Reymore, L., & Huron, D. (2020). Using auditory imagery tasks to map the cognitive linguistic dimensions of musical instrument timbre qualia. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain, 30 (3), 124–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000263

Additional resources

 
 
 

Activities

Class activity/listening

  • Choose a piece of music that you think contains interesting timbral elements and share it with the class. In groups discuss:

    • How would each member of the group describe the timbre of the piece of music?

    • Are there overlaps?

    • Are these terms sufficient to describe the timbral aspects of this piece of music to another person who has not heard it?

    • What is it that makes the terms you come up with sufficient/insufficient in describing the timbral elements in the piece? Will a different person understand it better?

  • Building a collaborative glossary/index. This is a class activity that takes place throughout the entire course.

    • Every week, each student brings in 1 or 2 terms related to that week's assigned readings/discussion materials that they deem central to the study and definition of timbre in the given/relevant context, explicitly noting and defining the many elements of timbre that are relevant to musical analysis

    • Everyone "should have a definition (or multiple definitions) for your chosen term or terms and a reason why you think it should be included. You should aim to have at least one word per session. As much as possible, you should try to refrain from collaborating or consulting with your colleagues on this task: part of the point of this exercise will be to see what each reader takes away from assignments individually.

    • Students will bring in their words and present them (with reasons for inclusion and their definitions) to the class, stimulating discussion.

    • Create sounds, each about 5 seconds long, that you think can be best described by the following words. You will have to create a total of six sounds.

      • 1. a) lisse (smooth)

        b) granuleux (grainy or granular)

      • 2. a) éclatant (bright or brilliant)

        b) sombre (dark)

      • 3. a) complexe (complex)

        b) simple (simple)

    • While we may have used some of the terms while learning about acoustics (e.g., simple vs. complex tones), try to focus on your interpretation of the words rather than the definitions we have discussed. This is a totally open-ended assignment. Be creative!

    • We have talked about how the qualities of a sound are multi-dimensional. The same applies to the sounds you create here. After creating the sounds, come up with three other terms to describe each sound.

    • The entire assignment has to be completed with Audacity. I will receive a total of 6 different sounds and 18 different terms from each of you for this assignment.

    • Export these sounds as a .wav file.

    • In a separate document, describe what and how you recorded the sound, what you did during the editing process, and what you did during the mixing process. This does not need to be very lengthy, a few sentences will suffice.

    • Additional information:

      • You will shape the sound you want in at least 2 steps of the process:

      • during the recording process, e.g., selecting the kind of mics to use, deciding on mic placement, adjusting the recording settings in Audacity, etc.,

      • during the editing process, e.g., using different tools and plugins to modify the sound you have recorded,

      • during the mixing process, e.g., inserting different fx to tracks, bussing, etc.

  • First you will create/record six separate sounds, each about 5 seconds long, that you believe represent the following terms:

    • Smooth

    • Grainy

    • Bright

    • Dark

    • Complex

    • Simple

  • You may use any technique or combination thereof to generate your sounds, including your own instrument, voice, environmental sounds, or sounds made using any kind of object, musical or otherwise. You are highly encouraged to shape your sounds to best exemplify each word via electronic manipulation using any type of software or app.

  • During class and in the readings, we have encountered some more technical definitions of these semantic descriptors. However, I want you to focus on YOUR interpretation of the words rather than any scholarly definitions you have encountered. This assignment is completely open-ended, in that respect; be creative!

  • Timbre in general, and timbre semantic space specifically, is multidimensional. After you finish creating your exemplary sounds, come up with three other words you believe describe the sound well—you can use my model for inspiration for this, or come up with your own words.

  • Next, create Sonic Visualizer representations for each of the sounds. This does not haaaaaave to be in separate files, but I would HIGHLY recommend pasting all the sounds into a single file (you can do this low-tech with GarageBand or Audacity) and then importing that file into SV. You can also submit separate SV files, but then you'll have to redo the spectrogram settings every time (paying careful attention to the y-axis in particular so they are comparable), and you won't be able to see multiple sounds in a single window, which will be helpful in comparing them.

  • Finally, you will write up a short document. For each of the six sounds, include (1) the term, (2) a few sentences of description of how you created the sound (including details on both recording and mixing, if relevant), (3) the three other words you chose to describe the sound, and (4) a few sentences about your observations of the spectrogram you made. Can you identify any of the acoustic features that might be driving the semantic association with the principal term? Or not? Is anything surprising?

  • You will turn in:

    • 6 sound files, one for each word, either .wav or .mp3 is fine. File naming convention should follow LastName_FirstName_SemanticTerm.wav (or .mp3)

    • Spectrograms for each of the six sounds. These can be included in a single .sv or screenshot file, or separate files. If you take screenshots, make sure to include the y-axis labels so I know what frequencies we're looking at

    • A document including details for each sound (see description above)

Timbre and Orchestration Resource
Next

Module II: Analysis of Timbre