The many facets of musical listening: Auditory perception mechanisms and learned experiences
Published June 30th, 2022
The many facets of musical listening:
Auditory perception mechanisms and learned experiences.
Peer-Reviewed Interactive Project Report
ACTOR Project Student Collaborative Grant
by Lena Heng (McGill University) & Mengqi Wang (Université de Strasbourg)
Listening to music is an amazingly complex activity that most humans enjoy and seem to do with ease. Many different combinations of a wide variety of sounds come together and the listener has to make sense of this sonic information that happens and then is gone. To comprehend all of this in real time would take a huge amount of computational power. Fortunately, the human mind is well-equipped with strategies to deal with this extremely complex process.
Humans are very good at perceiving certain aspects of sound. Pitch, for instance, is a dimension of music that we can easily differentiate with a great deal of precision. The timbre of a sound is another such dimension (or dimensions) – we can effortlessly tell apart the voices of different speakers, or the sounds of different types of instruments. During music listening, humans organize and structure the sounds that are heard so that they take a comprehensible form. Discerning and recognizing different sequences and arrangements of musical elements is important in music comprehension. Even though we structure and organize the sounds that come into our ears, understanding a piece of music that we are listening to is not the same as recreating the score in our mind. Instead, there are different types and layers of information, some organized by structural hierarchy, some through learned associations, yet others through different types of memory processes, to name a few.
Listeners’ understanding of a piece of music can also be quite subjective. The structure of the human auditory system, and the nature of auditory perception and cognition allows humans to share a set of common processes during music listening. On top of these commonalities, however, are many other layers of listening habits, learned experience, and knowledge structures. These give rise to nuances in understanding, because the sonic information that is encountered and processed by the auditory system is parsed and interpreted through each person’s different experiences, knowledge, and habits of listening.
We will examine particular sections of two pieces of music, the dizi concerto Chou Kong Shan by GUO Wenjing, and 12 Questions on “Heavenward Questions”, a work for the dizi and Western orchestra, by ZHU Shirui. We show how these moments exemplify the orchestration techniques and musical decisions of these two composers, and demonstrate how listeners with different musical experiences might perceive and make sense of the music in different ways. With programmatic content inspired by Chinese literary sources and the use of a Chinese instrument together with an orchestra of Western instruments, the composers utilize a variety of ways to convey their musical ideas across an idiom that is not intrinsically Chinese so that the intrinsically Chinese elements are still clearly identifiable. This calls for unique orchestration techniques that the composers have learnt through accumulated knowledge and experience. On the side of the listener, it demands not only common auditory processes from listeners but also learned knowledge and experiences of more culture-specific understanding.
Our analysis will first and foremost proceed from a listener’s perspective, discussing aspects of the music as it sounds to a listener, rather than what might be visually represented on the score. It is helpful, however, to show a visual representation of the music we discuss, and hence all the musical examples are accompanied by the notated score. Certain descriptions of the music borrow conventions of the visual notated elements of the music: for example, sometimes the melodic (or diachronic) structures are referred to as “horizontal” structures and harmonic (or synchronic) structures are referred to as “vertical” structures. This by no means implies that a listener necessarily organizes harmonic sounds vertically or melodic sounds horizontally.
In Chou Kong Shan, pitch and timbral organization play a big role in how the composer structures the work. In 12 Questions on “Heavenward Questions”, the composer organizes the percussion materials in a unique way that presents the aesthetic and narrative based on content that is inherently Chinese. The term timbre is a complex and ill-defined one, however, and might be used to describe the quality of sounds that differentiate instruments, different sound qualities of the same instrument, or the general quality of a sound that allows listeners to perceive that two sounds of the same loudness and pitch are different. Throughout the article, we will try to ensure that timbre’s meaning is clear when this term is being used.
The Composers
ZHU Shirui (*1954) completed his PhD in music in Stuttgart in 1999 and has been a composer and professor of composition at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music since 2003. His work 12 Questions on “Heavenward Questions” was composed in 2006 for the Youth and Music Festival in Berlin and published in 2007. The Chinese poet Qu Yuan (c. 340 BC – 278 BC) wrote the epic poem Heavenward Questions, which questioned the mysteries of the heavens and earth. In the composer’s words, this piece “should be understood just like Heavenward Questions without being answered if imagination could unify music and words, and there are no essential differences in human nature between the past and the present, the East and the West” (Zhu 2007, p. 46).
GUO Wenjing (*1956), another Chinese composer who completed his compositional education entirely in China, is a faculty member of the Central Conservatory of Music. His work Chou Kong Shan was composed for Chinese orchestra in 1992 and re-orchestrated for Western orchestra in 1995. It paints a colourful picture of the Tang dynasty poet Li Bai’s descriptions of Sichuan, which incidentally is GUO Wenjing’s hometown. In the re-orchestration, not only were the orchestral instruments obviously changed from Chinese to Western orchestral instruments, many of the musical materials were also recomposed.
We Are...
Collaborating on this project, we brought together our different experiences and expertise in music. We were excited to discover how our similarities and differences demonstrated how common auditory processes, tempered with our unique knowledge and experiences, give rise to various nuances in our understanding of the same pieces of music.
Lena HENG[1] grew up in Singapore. Their first “musical language” came from Anglophone pop songs, and then from studying piano and Western classical music. Even though they can speak and read Chinese, it is definitely not their most fluent language, and they are much more familiar with pop culture from the West. In an interesting turn of fate though, they picked up the erhu, became fluent in Chinese music, and went on to perform professionally in a Chinese chamber ensemble that focuses on contemporary works.
WANG Mengqi[1] on the other hand grew up in China, and is perfectly fluent in Chinese/Mandarin. She speaks English as well as French, having lived in France and currently completing part of her PhD at the Université de Strasbourg. She has studied the piano since she was 5, violin as a second instrument during her bachelors’ degree, and as a guitar amateur, she is also interested in pop music. She is currently researching contemporary French operas for her doctorate. Although she was exposed to Chinese music growing up in China, she has very little formal training in this musical tradition.
With musical and cultural experiences that are similar on some levels but also different on many other levels, we discovered that our perceptions of the same piece of music converge on certain aspects that arise from commonalities in the processes of auditory perception and diverge in aspects that call upon culture-specific understanding. This brought us to the focus of our project, an exploration into how music listening can be influenced and tempered by the different knowledge and experiences we have, even as we share very similar reactions to aspects of the music because of common principles of auditory perception.
Orchestrating a concerto for a solo Chinese instrument
Orchestration texts usually give information about instrument practicalities (range, fingerings, etc.), prescriptions and prohibitions about instrumental combinations, and musical excerpts as examples to emulate (Sandell, 1995). The success of orchestration decisions, however, depends on how the sounds blend or do not blend, and how they are perceived by listeners. It follows, then, that understanding the general auditory processing mechanisms of listeners, as well as ways of organizing and comprehending the sounds that might be learned through experience, is an important aspect of understanding the success of orchestration decisions.
Writing a concerto for a Chinese instrument with an orchestra of Western instruments brings with it a unique set of challenges and possibilities in blending and contrasting the sounds from these diverse instruments. There are numerous playing techniques for the dizi which are not as commonly found in repertoire for the Western flute or other Western wind instruments, and putting the dizi together with a Western orchestra means exploring a different set of orchestration techniques. Several different types of dizis are regularly used in the Chinese orchestra, including the bangdi, qudi, and xindi, to name a few. The different types of dizis are constructed in similar ways, although they vary in size and timbre quality, and can be used for different types of repertoire. Dizis also come in different pitches, and as they are constructed for playing diatonic scales, chromatic notes can be played with differing ease depending on the dizi being used. Some chromatic notes may be achieved with several different fingerings, so depending on the passage being played, a performer must make choices about the fingerings based on the ease of performance and accuracy of intonation. In Chou Kong Shan, Guo uses chromaticism extensively, in frequent and rapid modulations as well as in passages where he creates intense dissonances with pitch clusters that demand great virtuosity from the performer.
In his orchestration manual, Fu (2005) talks about glissandi being an important and frequently used technique for the dizi. These glissandi are not only used for decorative ornamentation; they can also be used in very specific ways in the folk music from different regions. Unlike the flute, the dizi has fingerholes instead of keys. This means that finger glissandi can be easily achieved by successively lifting the fingers off the holes. In this way, depending on the fingering, glissandi over several tones can be achieved. In fact, finger glissandi are very frequently found in dizi music from the northern parts of China. Another type of glissando is achieved using breath and embouchure control. This form of glissando is usually found in slower and more lyrical music, and usually spans a semitone.
Throughout Chou Kong Shan, glissandi are liberally used by the composer. As noted by TANG Junqiao, the performer of the recording used in these examples, the glissando right at the opening entry of the dizi appears to be of central importance and does not simply function to decorate the three ascending pitches (Tang, 2011). This three-note motive (figure 1) is key in tying the first movement together and also in connecting all three movements. At each instance of this three-note motive in the dizi part, glissandi connect the notes. Glissandi are also found in the other instruments. An example is given in Video 1 where the pan pipes and strings mirror the extensive glissandi found in the solo dizi. The opening of the first movement of Chou Kong Shan elicits a feeling of desolateness, stillness, and agelessness. This is created by the very sparse texture and rhythm, slow tempo, soft dynamic, and wide pitch range of three and a half octaves. With the sparse texture and slow tempo, the effects of the glissandi can be clearly heard. Here, the composer also considers the type of glissando each instrument can achieve: the pan pipes are given only a downward glissando at the end of long notes and phrases, while the strings, which can create smooth glissandi from one note to the next as long as they are on the same string, are given glissandi from one pitch to the next. With the downward glissandi, the pan pipes frequently seem to suggest melancholy and nostalgia while the strings are more reminiscent of the voice—both in speaking and in singing, as Chinese is a tonal language, and folk singing often uses glissandi between pitches.
Figure 1. mm. 3–4, DZ.
Three different dizis are used in this piece, the qudi (曲笛) in the first movement, the bangdi (梆笛) in the second, and the dadi (⼤笛) in the third. These dizis each have characteristic timbres which are very different from the timbres of any instruments found in the Western orchestra. On the one hand, it is easy for the dizi to stand out from the rest of the orchestral instruments, but on the other hand, when blend is desired, it is likely that the dizi will not be used. For instance, Guo has clearly demarcated the third movement into sections based on instrumentation. It begins with a lengthy orchestral introduction without the dizi (mm. 1–63), and the melody is often carried by several instruments in unison or at different octaves. Video 2 shows an excerpt of this section. The blend between the instruments carrying the melody—bassoons, horns, violins, violas, cellos—can be clearly heard, in contrast to the dissonances and noisiness that are created with the ostinatos and dissonant pitch intervals. Such an effect would not be possible if the dizi were included in the mix, as its distinctive timbre would not allow a smooth blend with the rest of the instruments carrying the melody, but might instead decrease the contrast between the blended melody line and the dissonant parts.
A contrasting effect can be heard in Video 3, where the octave unison melody sounds much noisier even though it is carried by fewer instruments: oboes, cor anglais, bassoon, dizi. The presence of the dizi makes the unison here sound less blended, even though there are more different instruments in the previous example. This effect appears to be the intention of the composer, because not only does he include the dizi in this melody, he also inserts a pedal point (mainly Ds) into its melodic line, forming a compound melody and making it more rhythmically active.
Pitch relations in Chou Kong Shan and their influences on orchestration
As in many other musical cultures, pitch is an important organizational element in Chinese music. The linear organization of pitch materials is often one of the most salient musical elements. Erickson (1984) proposes the theory of “melodic centering” as a perceptual principle that could be similar across listeners. This is the idea that firstly, listeners are drawn towards a pitch centre in a melody, and the centre often “achieves its centricity through the nudges and pushes of usually shorter and more ornamental pitches” (p. 3). In Western music of the common-practice period, the pitch centre is usually the tonic, and the leading note nudges the melody towards the tonic. Other styles and traditions of music may not necessarily have a tonic, but Castellano and colleagues (1985) have shown that listeners depend on a hierarchical organization of pitch stability and structural significance, regardless of their musical background or the style of music. Thus perception of pitch stability that does not depend on the rules of harmonic organization of any specific musical tradition implies an auditory grouping process that is generally shared among listeners.
Building on these common perceptual mechanisms, there are also levels of musical organization that depend on knowledge structures gained from experience in Chinese music. Many different types of scales found in Chinese music are different from those in Western music. The conventions of harmonic and melodic organization can also be very different, which may influence listeners’ understanding of their perceived structural significance.
In functional harmony, found in virtually all Western classical music in the common-practice period, there are many levels of hierarchical structure, made possible by the distinct functions of each chord within the tonal system. This concept of functional harmony is largely absent in Chou Kong Shan, although it would be a mistake to believe that harmonic organization is absent. In traditional Chinese music, the type of melodic mode frequently determines how the music is organized both vertically and horizontally. More specifically, characteristic intervals found in melodic progressions are often reflected in the chordal structure (Du and Qin, 2007, pp. 300–301). Intricate levels of hierarchical structuring are thus created less through functional harmony and more by different means of harmonic organization, or by other musical parameters such as rhythm or timbre (created by the use of different instruments and by varying the tone colour of an instrument through various playing techniques).
With functional harmony largely absent in Chou Kong Shan, Guo creates a tonal organization by different means that might be less culture-specific to one trained in Western music. An example can be observed in Video 4, where instead of modulating via functional progressions and pivot chords, there are numerous instances where shifts from one pitch centre to another is achieved with the use of melodic pivot notes instead.
For a listener enculturated in the Western classical music tradition, the levels of stability within this piece are likely to be defined by the strongest pitch centre on one end, the instability of tritones, seconds and sevenths on the other, and everything else not clearly differentiated in between. Listeners enculturated in Chinese music, on the other hand, might perceive a different form of tonal organization due to the use of culture-specific musical scales. The zhengsheng scale (正声音阶) is a heptatonic scale often found in traditional Chinese court and literati music, with degrees of the scale similar to the lydian mode, although the functions of each note might differ. As in the melodic motive marked in figure 2, there is a sharpened fourth degree, and to a listener trained in Western classical music, this might imply a modulation to the dominant. A listener trained in Chinese music, however, might perceive this sharpened fourth degree as sitting firmly within the key. To such a listener, the melody provides a strong feeling of stability, and each reiteration of this motive clearly demonstrates a modulation of the phrase with pivot notes, as demonstrated here.
Figure 2. Analysis of dizi solo (mm. 12–35), showing the melodic motive, and annotated with letter names indicating local pitch centres and Arabic numerals indicating the scale degrees[2].
Guo also uses pitch materials in specific ways to create textural and timbral effects in this piece, drawing on the different ways in which harmonic and melodic structures are organized in Chinese music. The prominence of the zhengsheng scale in the first movement means that the interval of an augmented fourth is an important one. Within the melodic motive and its elaborations in figure 2, the fifth and first degrees of the scale are relatively important. This also implies an emphasis of the interval of a perfect fourth. It is of no surprise, then, to find a combination of perfect and augmented fourths both in the horizontal and vertical pitch structures of the first movement.
In their study on perceived spatial representation of tonal relations, Krumhansl and Kessler (1982) found that in general, a perfect fourth was rated as fitting better within a tonal context than an augmented fourth. Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1996) formulated a set of well-formedness and preference rules formalizing the possible structures and listeners’ hearings of the music. Putting these ideas of “fit” and “well-formed group” together could imply that intervals of an augmented fourth create more tension while that of perfect fourths create a greater feeling of closure.
The identity of the augmented fourth in this context, however, is somewhat complex. For listeners enculturated in Western classical music, a melodic augmented fourth could suggest a bad fit, or a grouping structure that is not well-formed. To a listener who is fluent in Chinese music on the other hand, a melodic augmented fourth could be a good fit. Melodic movement plays an important role in the structural organization of Chinese music, and because the augmented fourth is a commonplace and important intervallic relation in the zhengsheng scale, its presence in the melody can be heard as stable and well-formed. When this interval is present within a chord, the greater sensory dissonance of the augmented fourth compared to a perfect fourth might make its sense of well-formedness more ambiguous.
There is a feeling of stillness and agelessness at the opening of the piece. While the type of scale is still ambiguous in the opening measures, augmented fourth relations can already be heard; a subtle suggestion before the main melody is introduced at m. 15. Video 1 illustrates these augmented fourth relations in the first few measures. The most dissonant moment in the opening passage could be in m. 4, where the augmented fourth occurs vertically in a chord, in one of only three instances in the first minute of this movement where four notes are heard simultaneously. This slightly tense moment, however, is quickly resolved when the composer immediately moves to a horizontal augmented fourth in the harp melody. Although augmented fourths play an important role from the beginning, their presence serves less to create tension and more to evoke a feeling of openness and agelessness.
The second section in the first movement of Chou Kong Shan clearly differentiates itself from the first with its intense rhythmic propulsion and denser texture. Incessant sixteenth notes beginning from m. 58 provide a very clear directional drive. The chords are used here more for colour rather than functional harmonic progression. These rapid chord changes can be heard in Video 5. The half-diminished and diminished seventh chords contain tritones (augmented 4ths/diminished 5ths), creating a sense of increasing tension before being slightly released by the more consonant quartal dyads.
In mm. 76 to 80, shown in Video 6, a combination of loud dynamics, accented notes, and dissonances are used to enhance the tension. Here the composer utilizes many of his characteristic techniques to create a sense of forceful, energetic power. The xylophone alternates augmented fourths with perfect fifths while various combinations of augmented fourths in the other instruments add up vertically to form a pitch cluster. This is contrasted by the trombone and tuba line, which is made up of repeated quarter-note fifths, seemingly attempting to establish a pitch-centre of F amidst the intense breaking up of any sense of tonality by the other instruments. This contest of sounds works because the repeated quarter-note fifths are given to the trombone and tuba. The tuba blends well with the trombone, and together they constitute one of the most powerful combinations in the orchestra (Adler, 2002). Without this powerful combination, it would not have been possible to oppose the stable perfect fifths with the cluster of augmented fourths in all the other parts to create this tension pulling from both directions.
The third and final section (Video 7) after the dizi cadenza brings back the pitch and textural characteristics of the first section, albeit in a much more condensed form. Augmented fourths are found only melodically, decreasing the intense tension and harmonic dissonance from the previous section. The movement closes with stable perfect fourths and a final vertical stacking of three quartal chords built from the three-note opening motive of figure 1.
The above examples are just a few excerpts from this lengthy work that serve to illustrate how the composer orchestrates for this unique combination of instruments: the dizi and the Western orchestra. They also highlight how the piece is effective to listeners with different musical experiences. The composer made musical decisions that follow general stability rules and auditory perception mechanisms that allow listeners of different backgrounds to perceive structure and organization in the music. On top of that, listeners familiar with Chinese music are able to comprehend additional layers of information from additional knowledge structures they have accumulated in their musical experience such as familiarity with different scales, or particular instrumental techniques.
12 Questions on “Heavenward Questions” is a single-movement work by ZHU Shirui, also written for the dizi and Western orchestra. Similarly to Chou Kong Shan, of the composer’s orchestration decisions reflect his understanding of how the dizi sounds together with the other instruments. Another interesting aspect is how Zhu uses the percussion instruments in this piece, and this is the focus of the analysis in this section.
Percussion writing in 12 questions
There are a few ways in which the percussion section has been traditionally used in Western orchestral scores. One is to simulate march music or to provide an ethnic flavour. The percussion section can also emphasize accents and provide general rhythmic activity. It is also often used in building up to or capping a climax. Dramatic beginnings to pieces of music can also be created by percussion instruments, and finally, the percussion section is also used to colour certain pitches or even entire passages by doubling other instruments in the orchestra (Adler, 2002, p. 497).
In his orchestration treatise for the Chinese orchestra, Piao (2011) observes that while Western percussion instruments may have instances of being soloistic, they rarely stand alone outside of their supportive role. In China, on the other hand, the long history of percussion ensembles in folk traditions, as well as the role of percussion in operas, created and developed characteristic featured roles for percussion instruments. Percussion instruments could be used soloistically and to perform melodic or gestural roles. As these instruments became incorporated into the Chinese orchestra, the traditional percussion roles were also absorbed into the orchestral writing, and very different uses of percussion instruments from the usual Western percussion idiom can be seen.
Rhythmic accentuation
Right at the opening of ZHU Shirui’s 12 Questions on “Heavenward Questions”, we can see one of the uses of the percussion section common in a Western orchestra. The timpani are used here to accentuate the beginnings of each two-measure phrase. At m. 11 (Video 8), two Chinese percussion instruments, the tanggu (Chinese drum) and big bass luo (tam-tam) join the timpani. However, even with the addition of these two Chinese percussion instruments, the function of the percussion section here is still to accent the rhythm, and the instruments do not stand outside of this supportive role.
Percussion as a melodic instrument
The bangzi (Chinese wood drums) and bangu (little Peking opera drum) have very strong associations with the Chinese operatic tradition, and carry strong melodic and dramatic connotations. They are often used to keep the beat for the singer, not only in metered passages but also in metrically freer ones. In many Chinese opera traditions, it is not uncommon to have passages in which the singer (and/or melodic instruments) sings a metrically free passage while the rhythm section keeps a steady pulse. This is often used to heighten the tension and to contrast and/or highlight the emotions of the singer. In addition to these types of passages, another use of the bangu is in mirroring the rhythmic patterns of the vocal and melodic lines. These uses of the bangu and bangzi in Chinese operas can be seen in Video 9 and Video 10 respectively. Video 9 is an excerpt of an instrumental performance of operatic music, the video demonstrates the roles of the bangu, with the melodic instruments playing a vocal line similar to that an opera actor would sing. In Video 10, although the bangzi appears to be taking on the role of keeping pulse, it is the lead in the ensemble, and the other instrumentalists listen to subtle cues by the bangzi to know how the melody is going to progress. With these connotations, listeners experienced in Chinese music would likely form strong associations with the melodic line upon hearing the bangzi being used in this specific way.
Towards the end of the first question from around m. 21, (Video 11), the percussion instruments start coming into the melodic foreground, transitioning from a supportive role to a more prominent one. While still carrying a rhythmic pattern similar to the other groups of instruments, the use of rim strokes makes the percussion lines stand out more, perceptually segregating the percussion section from the other instrument groups.
The entry of the bangzis at m. 27 (Video 12) creates a clear line together with rim strokes on the timpani. Listeners experienced with percussion instruments in Chinese opera will most likely easily associate this bangzi line with a melodic line. However, these associations are not only due to learned connotations by experienced listeners. Perceptual principles also guide listeners’ attention towards this clearly segregated line. Firstly, the sharp and bright sounds of the bangzi and the rim strokes on the timpani increase the salience of this group of instruments. In addition to rim strokes, the set of different bangzis allow for relative variation in pitch, and even though it is not absolutely tuned, some form of timbral-pitch contour can be established. This pitch variation makes it easier to create not only rhythmic variation but also melodic variation, drawing listeners’ attention towards the percussion section as a separate, independent layer.
Gestural role of percussion
There is a wide variety of unpitched metallophones in Chinese percussion instruments, used traditionally in operas, processions, and ritual music, among others. For listeners experienced with Chinese traditional music, the common use of these instruments in these types of settings have created strong associations with particular gestures, and sometimes quite specific ones.
Even though these metallophones are unpitched, each has a unique timbre and their use in combination creates a range of different timbres that can be perceived as a timbral melody. With this range of timbres and their rhythmic combination, it is not difficult for a listener, even one inexperienced in Chinese music, to form associations with gestures and movements. An example is given in Video 13, where the combination of varied percussion timbres and rhythmic patterns vividly evokes gestures and movements, here specifically of the Monkey King (Monkey King, 2021) wreaking havoc in the heavens.
Although luos (Chinese gongs) are unpitched percussion instruments, depending on the angle and position at which they are hit, a tone that changes slightly in pitch can be produced. These pitch-changing tones allow for gestural associations to be made, or a suggestion of some kind of movement. Wallmark and Kendall (2018) believe that metaphorical descriptions of sounds constitute conceptual representations that are “hybrids” of various frames of references. In the sound of the luo, the physical or activity frame of reference appears to dominate, an easily made association between the timbre, pitch, and connotations of movement. This type of association, once again, does not require a listener to be experienced in Chinese music or operatic genres.
The first appearance of the metallophones in the capacity of gestural connotation appears towards the end of Question 3, at m. 68 (Video 14). Even though metallophones have been heard before this point in the piece, they have been used more to create a dramatic entrance and less for their gestural connotations. Although only a brief three measures in length, the combination of low brasses with the small and medium luos in this passage create an impression of a comic character in an opera (丑角[chou jue]) striding onto the scene. Comic characters, in addition to providing humour, can also be used to question philosophical ideas or express moral ideas that may be stilted or wearisome and banal if conveyed by other more serious characters. It seems apt to have such a character in this work that brings up philosophical questions that are being asked in the poem.
Both melodic and gestural elements work in conjunction in the passage at mm. 107–118 (Video 15). In addition to the instruments in the percussion section, the harp is also used here in a percussive manner. The entire percussion section and the harp form a stratified layer here, clearly distinct from the rest of the ensemble, and comparable in melodic importance to the solo dizi. The drums, tanggu and set of five paigus (Chinese drums that are relatively pitched) form the basis of the melodic line. In conjunction with the small and medium luos, a lively and animated musical line is created. From m. 115 onwards, the harp is used in a surprisingly percussive way, imitating the sound of the luos.
Chinese percussion is very distinctive and its presence can easily conjure up narrative and aesthetic ideas that are Chinese. Zhu utilizes this fully in employing the percussion instruments to this effect in sections where he wants to highlight particular ideas and narrative content. He has also created innovative ways in which such sounds are achieved, not simply by selecting the instruments based on their inherent timbres, but also by creating the type of timbre he wants through different playing techniques.
Composers make use of their knowledge of different orchestration techniques in creating certain effects and sonic outcomes. These effects may be comprehended by listeners to a greater or lesser extent depending on the amount of shared understanding with the musical tradition, style of music, and other factors. In our project, we have looked at two pieces of music for the dizi and western orchestra and focused on different aspects in the orchestration.
In Chou Kong Shan, the composer GUO Wenjing structures the music through different levels of pitch and timbral organization. Some of this structuring is apparent to listeners in general because it utilizes auditory grouping mechanisms that are shared amongst humans. Other aspects of this organization demand more in-depth understanding of the Chinese musical traditions and culture.
Similarly, in 12 Questions, the composer ZHU Shirui orchestrates the percussion in a unique way to convey the aesthetic and a narrative based on Chinese cultural ideas. There are sections in which the percussion writing is clearly in a style usually found in orchestration for Western instruments, and there are other sections in which the percussion is written in a clearly Chinese style. Even though Western and Chinese percussion instruments are both used, it is not the tradition of the instrument that dictates the style (whether Western or Chinese) of the percussion writing, but rather the musical context.
We have looked only at two pieces of music, and there are infinitely many other varieties of orchestration techniques that composers use to achieve their musical goals. The most important point, however, is that these effects work because they are perceivable by listeners. Successful orchestration is built upon the fact that regardless of the instruments used or the musical or cultural connotations of the music, they adhere to universal mechanisms of auditory perception and cognition.
Adler, S. (2002). The study of orchestration (3rd ed.). WW Norton and Company.
Castellano, M. A., Bharucha, J. J., & Krumhansl, C. L. (1984). Tonal hierarchies in the music of north India. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113(3), 394.
Erickson, R. (1984). A perceptual substrate for tonal centering? Music Perception, 2(1), 1–5.
izzie fcy. (2019, March 1). 范芷芸個人音樂會—京劇曲牌聯奏 (Peking Opera Drums and Songs). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y39o7puhdiQ
Krumhansl, C. L., & Kessler, E. J. (1982). Tracing the dynamic changes in perceived tonal organization in a spatial representation of musical keys. Psychological Review, 89(4), 334.
Lendvai, E. (1971). Bela Bartok An Analysis of His Music. Kahn & Averill.
Lerdahl, F., & Jackendoff, R. S. (1996). A Generative Theory of Tonal Music, reissue, with a new preface. MIT press.
Monkey King. (2021, September 23). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey_King
Musical Map of China 中国音乐地图.瑞鸣 Rhymoi Music. (2021, December 2). Shanxi song-and-dance duet—Five Bangzi 山西二人台《五梆子》中国音乐地图 听见山西 瑞鸣音乐 Rhymoi Music. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8LOA-9jbmA
Sandell, G. J. (1995). Roles for spectral centroid and other factors in determining" blended" instrument pairings in orchestration. Music Perception, 13(2), 209–246.
Wallmark, Z., & Kendall, R. A. (2018). Describing Sound: The Cognitive Linguistics of Timbre. In E. I. Dolan & A. Rehding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Timbre. Oxford University Press. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190637224.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190637224
安 [An], 鲁新 [Lu Xin]. (2012). 郭文景音乐创作研究 [Analyzing Guo Wenjing’s musical compositions]. 中央音乐学院出版社 [Central Conservatory of Music Press].
陳 [Chan], 明志 [Ming Chi]. (2003). 中樂因您更動聽-民族管弦樂導賞 [Chinese orchestral music is better because of you-an appreciation of Chinese orchestral music] (Vol. 1). 三聯書店有限公司 [Joint Publishing H.K. Pte Ltd].
杜 [Du], 亚雄 [Yaxiong], & 陈 [Chen], 景娥 [Jinge]. (2009). 中国民族音乐 [Chinese folk music]. 西泠印社出版社 [Xiling Imprinting Corporation Publishing House].
杜 [Du], 亚雄 [Yaxiong], & 秦 [Qin], 德祥 [Dexiang]. (2007). 中国乐理 [Chinese music theory]. 上海音乐学院出版社 [Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press].
傅 [Fu], 利民 [Limin]. (2005). 中国民族器乐配器教程 [A manual for orchestrating Chinese traditional instruments]. 上海教育出板社 [Shanghai Education Publishing House].
郭 [Guo], 文景 [Wenjing]. (1995). 愁空山–交响乐队 [Chou Kong Shan] [musical score]. People’s Music Publishing House.
朴 [Piao], 东生 [Dongsheng]. (2011). 中国民族管弦乐实用配器手册 [A practical guide to orchestration for traditional Chinese instruments]. 人民音乐出版社 [People’s Music Publishing House].
唐 [Tang], 俊乔 [Junqiao]. (2011). 试论郭文景的竹笛与乐队协奏曲《愁空山》对竹笛演奏技术的拓展 [A discussion on how Chou Kong Shan expands the playing techniques of the bamboo flute]. 音乐艺术(上海音乐学院学报) [Musical Arts (Journal of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music)], 2011(4), 108–113. https://doi.org/10.19359/j.cn31-1004/j.2011.04.014
香港中樂團HKCO. (2020, May 8). 【鼓聲隆隆同抗疫 給自強不息的香港人】第二十五集 – 享負盛名的「八大錘」以京劇打擊樂演繹《鬧天宮》. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YGiNuk0ek7Q
朱 [Zhu], 世瑞 [Shirui]. (2007). <天问>之问 [12 Questions on ‘Heavenward Questions’] [Musical score]. People’s Music Publishing House.
[1] Chinese names follow the convention of family name, given name. Lena Heng however does not have a Chinese name and their naming convention follows that of given name, family name. Throughout this article, family names will be capitalized for clarity.
[2] The scale degrees are labelled in relation to a major scale. Chinese scale degrees have different names; in the case of the zhengsheng scale, they are called gong (宮), shang (商), jue (角), qing zhi (清徴), zhi (徴), yu (羽), qing gong (清宮), which correspond to the first through seventh degrees. Modern Chinese music also incorporated the numerical notation that Chinese students brought back from Japan, which was likely derived from the system of numbered notation invented in Europe. As this notation system is based on the major scale, the scale degrees will similarly be labelled as 123#4567.