Berlioz - Strauss | Treatise on Instrumentation
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Updated August 2024: This in-process page currently just contains the Cello chapter.
TREATISE ON INSTRUMENTATION
BY
HECTOR BERLIOZ
ENLARGED AND REVISED
BY
RICHARD STRAUSS
INCLUDING BERLIOZ’ ESSAY ON CONDUCTING
TRANSLATED BY THEODORE FRONT
The Violoncello
Its four strings are tuned in fifths, exactly an octave lower than the four strings of the viola: [Figure | Info]
Its range may be three and a half octaves, even in the orchestra: [see figure | see all figures]
Great virtuosos go still higher. However, these extremely high notes are attractive only at the end of slow phrases; they are usually employed not as natural tones but as harmonics, which are produced more easily and sound much better.
Before we proceed further, it is necessary to acquaint the reader with the double meaning of the G-clef in violoncello notation. If this clef occurs at the very beginning of a piece or directly after a bass clef, the notes indicate the octave above the actual sounds: [see figure]
The G-clef has its proper meaning only if it follows a tenor-clef (G-clef on the fourth line); only then does it indicate the actual tones, and not their higher octave: [see figure]
There is nothing to justify this practice; it frequently leads to errors, since many violoncellists ignore it and always play the G-clef according to its usual meaning. To avoid misconceptions, we shall use it here only after the tenor-clef, when the continued use of that clef would lead us too far beyond the stave. The G-clef will thus always represent the actual pitch—as in the preceding example. [see figure]
What was said concerning double stops, arpeggios, trills and bowing on the violin, applies equally to the violoncello. But one must never forget that the violoncello. strings, being longer than those of the violin, require wider stretches between the fingers of the left hand. Consequently, double-stop passages in tenths, possible on the violin and viola, cannot be executed on the violoncello. One can write tenths only if the lower note is on an open string: [see figure].
The following tenths would, therefore, be impossible: [see figure]
Neither is the violoncello capable of the extreme agility of the violin and viola—because of the depth of its tone and the thickness of its strings. The natural and artificial harmonics, frequently employed on the violoncello in solos, are produced in the same fashion as on the violin and viola. The length of the violoncello strings makes even the very high natural harmonics, produced near the bridge, much more easy and beautiful than on the violin. Here is a list of those harmonics which sound best on each string: [see figure 1, see figure 2]
The best way of producing artificial harmonics is by pressing down the first finger as an artificial, mov able nut and then lightly touching the fourth: [see figure]
This fingering is almost the only one practicable on the violoncello. The position of the touched fifth can be used only near the bridge where the distances and proportions are much smaller than on the lower part of the string, and the stretches of the left hand diminish similarly. In this case the fourth finger touches the interval of the fifth while the thumb serves as the nut: [see figure]
Scales in natural and artificial harmonics: [see figure]
On the violoncello chords in harmonics would doubtless have a charming orchestral effect in slow and tender pieces. Nevertheless, it is easier and less dangerous to obtain the same result by means of divided violins playing high on the E-strings with mutes. The two sounds are so similar that it is almost impossible to distinguish them.
The following passage, written in harmonics for the violoncello [see figure] can be precisely and much more easily executed by natural tones on the violins: [see figure]
In the orchestra the violoncellos usually take the part of the double-basses, doubling it in the higher octave or in unison. But it is frequently advisable to separate the violoncellos from the double-basses. In such cases the violoncellos may play a melody or a melodious phrase on the high strings. The violoncello part may sometimes be written below the double- basses to take advantage of the peculiar sound of an open string or for some other special harmonic effect. Finally, the violoncello part maybe similar to that of the double-basses, but in more rapid motion—such as the double-basses could not execute well: [see figure | Recording]
Here the violoncello part has a more excited and restless motion, but nevertheless plays approximately the same notes as the double-basses and follows their lead almost throughout.
Immediately after this passage, however, the violoncellos separate completely from the double-basses and go below them. This results in the tremendous collision of the minor second below, and at the same time the rough vibration of the C, the lowest open string of the violoncello — while the double-basses drone a B with full power on their first string against the higher octave of the C in the violoncellos. [Example 31 | Recording].
Otherwise one should never separate the violoncellos from the double-basses without sufficient reason, that is, without being sure of producing a distinct effect thereby; nor should the violoncellos be written two octaves above the double-basses, as some composers have done. This procedure can only result in weakening the sonority of the fundamental tones of the harmony. The bass part, thus forsaken by the violoncellos, becomes dull, rough and extremely heavy, and combines very poorly with the upper parts because the double-basses are too far removed from them by their low pitch.
This chapter has undergone great changes. The use of low horns, the introduction of the bass clarinet, the frequent employment of the tuba as a melodic element—all these are supplementing the double-bass to a great extent. Bassoons are also used for doubling the basses; I personally prefer them for inner parts. They should take the bass part of a wood-wind group only if supported by the double bassoon.
The string quartet, when it is not weighted down by wind instruments, gains in clarity by using only the violoncellos as the bass, reinforced occasionally by a pizzicato in the double-basses, unless one prefers to omit the double-basses altogether for long stretches, as Wagner deliberately did in “Meistersinger” for the first time.
A melody in the violoncellos and double-basses is greatly intensified if the violoncellos are written an octave lower than the double-basses so that they play in unison; also if a number of violoncellos are supported by only one desk of double-basses."
When a very soft harmony is to be produced by string instruments, it is frequently better to give the bass part to the violoncellos alone and to let the double-basses rest. Weber did so in the accompaniment to the Adagio of Agathe’s wonderful aria in the second act of “Freischuetz”. In this example it is notable that in the beginning the violas alone supply the bass below a four-part harmony in the violins; the violoncellos enter a little later, doubling the violas. (Example 32.)
Violoncellos, in a group of eight or ten, are essentially melodic instruments; their tone on the upper strings is one of the most expressive in the entire orchestra. Nothing is so melancholy, nothing so suitable to rendering tender, languishing melodies, as a mass of violoncellos playing unisono on the highest string. They are equally excellent for melodious passages of a religious character. Composers ought to select the appropriate strings on which such passages should be played. The lower strings, C and G, have a particularly suitable timbre, full of dignity and, seriousness, especially in keys permitting the use of open strings; but their depth of pitch limits them to more or less melodic basses, actual melodies being reserved for the upper strings (as mentioned above). In his Overture to “Oberon”, Weber, with rare felicity, lets the violoncellos sing high notes while two A-clarinets play unisono below them. The effect is both novel and touching. [Example 33 | Recording.]
The versatility of this instrument is shown by the following excerpts from Wagner's works: in “Meistersinger” the violoncellos, unisono with the violins, intensify the noble ardor of the Prize Song (Example 34); in the introduction to the third act of “Tannhaeuser" they express profound contrition (Example 35 | Recording.)
The violoncellos interpret with equal eloquence the ecstasy of the dying Tristan (Example 36) and the nature wisdom of Hans Sachs (Example 37 | Recording)."
Violoncellos are able to express a complete gamut of moods, both in man and in nature. See the beginning of "Walkuere”— storm (cf. Example 3, p. 11); in the first act of the same work the violoncello solo (quoted by Gevaert)— first stirring of love; the Prelude to “Tristan”— yearning (Example 38 | Recording); Kurwenal's derisive song in the first act of “Tristan” where the violoncellos are combined with violas and French horns—roughness (Example 39).
Although our present violoncellists are very skillful and can master all kinds of difficulties without trouble. fast passages on low notes seldom fail to produce some confusion. As for notes in high positions requiring the use of the thumb, there even less is to be expected; they are not very sonorous and are always of doubtful precision. Violas or second violins are obviously more appropriate for passages in these high range. In modern, well-staffed orchestras, containing a great number of violoncellos, these are frequently divided into two groups. The first violoncellos execute a separate melodic or harmonic part, the second ones double the basses in the octave or in unison.
For accompaniments of a melancholy, veiled and mysterious character, two different violoncello parts are sometimes placed above the double-bases, leaving the bass part to them alone; this, together with the violas, produces a quartet of low harmonies. The arrangement is seldom well-contrived. One should guard against misusing it. (Example 40 | Recording.)
The tremolo on two strings as well as arpeggios in forte are well suited for the violoncello. They add greatly to the richness of harmony and increase the general sonority of the orchestra.
In the introduction of the overture to “Guillaume Tell”, Rossini wrote a quintet for five solo violoncellos, which is accompanied pizzicato by the rest of the violoncellos, divided into two groups. The deep tones of uniform character are very effective here; they enhance the brilliance of the orchestration in the ensuing Allegro.
The pizzicato on the violoncello cannot have much rapidity. The method proposed [see figure] for the pizzicato on the violins would not be suitable on the violoncello— because of the thickness and tension of its strings and their too great distance from the finger-board. According to the procedure generally in use for pizzicato, one should not exceed the speed of eight eighths in an alla-breve (Allegro non troppo) or of twelve sixteenths in 6-8 time (Andantino).
